1847 –Yellow Fever, esp. New Orleans, also Galveston, Mobile, Pensacola, Vicksburg >3,400

–3,397  Blanchard tabulation based upon city breakouts below.[1]

 

Alabama         (76-78)

— 78  Mobile. Aug 2, 1st case.  Augustin 1909, 444.

— 76        “       Ketchum 1851, 304; Sternberg 1908, 719; Toner 1873, 16;[2] USMHS 1896, 437.

 

Florida            (     76)

—    76   Pensacola                                           Keating 1879, p. 87.

 

Louisiana       (~3,000)           (June-Dec, esp. Sep)

—         ?  Alexandria.                                      Fenner 1848, p. 192;[3] Carrigan 1961, p. 87.[4]

—         ?  Algiers.                                            Fenner 1848, p. 204; Carrigan 1961, p. 86.[5]

—         ?  Baton Rouge.                                   Fenner 1848, p. 192.

—         ?  Bayou Sara.                                     Fenner 1848, 213 (several cases but not epidemic).

—         ?  Carrollton, now New Orleans neighborhood.  Fenner 1848, 204. Carrigan 1961, 86.[6]

—       10  Covington, St. Tammany Parish.    Fenner 1848, pp. 193, 216.[7]

—         1  Lafayette, Jun 22, 1st death.            Fenner 1848, p. 195.[8]

—     613        “         The National, Lafayette, 10-23-1848, as reported in Fenner 1848, p. 205.

—     498        “          July 26-Sep 21.              Fenner 1848, p. 202.

—     111        “      Sep 19-25.   Whig Standard, Hillsdale MI. “The Pestilence…” 10-5-1847, 3[9]

—     115        “      Sep 26-Oct 2. Whig Standard, Hillsdale, MI. “The Pestilence…” 10-5-1847, 3.

—         ?  Madisonville.                                   Carrigan. The Saffron Scourge, 1961, p. 85.[10]

—         ?  Mandeville.                                      Fenner 1854, 205.

–~3,000  New Orleans & Lafayette.              Fenner 1848, p. 206; Fenner 1854, p. 72.[11]

—  2,739        “               “        “                      Fenner 1848, p. 202.

—  2,729        “               “        “         The National, Lafayette, 10-23-1848, in Fenner 1848, 206.

–~3,000  New Orleans                       Simonds. “On he Sanitary Condition of New Orleans.” 205

–>2,800        “  Summer-Fall             Willsey and Lewis. Harper’s Book of Facts. 1895, p. 559.

—  2,306        “  N.O. Cemetery sexton reports to Board of Health, noted in Fenner 1848, p. 205.

—  2,300        “             Cemetery reports to Board of Health noted in Fenner 1848, p. 189.[12]

—  2,259        “ Aug-Dec         Keating 1879, 87; Sternberg 1908, 719; USMHS 1896, 437

—  2,241        “ Jul 4-Oct 18.   Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.[13]

—         1        “  June 17th, 1st case.      Fenner 1848, p. 193.[14]

—         5        “  July 4-10.       Board of Health report noted in Fenner 1848, p. 201.

—         6        “  July 11-17.     Board of Health report noted in Fenner 1848, p. 201.

—       16        “  July 18-24.     Board of Health report noted in Fenner 1848, p. 201.

—       47        “  July 25-31.     Board of Health report noted in Fenner 1848, p. 201.

—     133        “  Aug 1-7.         Board of Health report noted in Fenner 1848, p. 201.

—     197        “  Aug 9-15.      Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     322        “  Aug 16-22.     Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     328        “  Aug 23-29.     Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     435        “  Aug 30-Sep 5.  Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     355        “  Sep 6-12.       Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     169        “  Sep 13-19.     Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     427        “  Sep 19-25.  Whig Standard, Hillsdale, MI. “The Pestilence at…” 10-5-1847, 3.[15]

—       85        “  Sep 20-26.     Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—       61        “  Sep 27-Oct 3.  Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     402        “  Sep 26-Oct 2. Whig Standard, Hillsdale, MI. “The Pestilence at…” 10-5-1847, 3.

—  1,044        “  Sep.                Reports to the Board of Health noted in Fenner 1848, p. 189.

—       44        “  Oct 4-10.        Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—       53        “  Oct 10-18.      Hester Board of Health reports compilation, in Fenner 1848, 202.

—     198        “  Oct.                Fenner 1848, p. 191.

—       12        “  Nov.               Fenner 1848, p. 192.

—       10        “  Dec.               Fenner 1848, p. 192. (last reported death was week ending Dec 25)

—         ?  Plaquemine.             Fenner 1848, p. 192; Carrigan 1961, p. 86.

—         8  U.S. Barracks, 6 miles below New Orleans, Oct 8-21, Nov 10. (Fenner 1848, 216.)[16]

 

Mississippi      (     >36)

—    ?  Bay St. Louis.  Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “The Yellow Fever…” 9-22-1847, p. 2.[17]

—    ?  Biloxi.  Fenner 1848, 205; Rowland 1907, 1015; Weekly Wisconsin, Mil., 9-22-1847, 2.[18]

—    4  Natchez .           Fenner 1848, p. 192, 225-227.[19]

—    ?  Pascagoula.      Fenner 1848, p. 205; Rowland 1907, p. 1015. (Just noted to exist.)

—    ?  Pass Christian. Rowland 1907, p. 1015; Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 9-22-1847, p. 2.

—    3         “     Fenner 1848, p. 205 (Our number. Fenner notes “several” NOLA refugee deaths.)

—  >4  Rodney, Jefferson County.[20]   Fenner 1848, p. 205, 218; [21] Rowland 1907, p. 1015.

—  25  Vicksburg.                                Fenner 1848, p. 224;[22] Rowland 1907, p. 1015.[23]

 

Tennessee       (      1)

—  1  Memphis, Sep 21.         Fenner 1848, 213 (were also several cases landed from steamboats).

 

Texas              (   206)

— 200  Galveston (Oct 1-Nov 26)       Keating 1879, 87; Sternberg 1908, 719; USMHS 1896, 437

—     ?  Brazos.                      Daily News, Newport, RI. “Later from Brazos.” 10-28-1847, p. 2.

—     3  Houston.                    Fenner 1848, 228-229;[24] La Roche. Yellow Fev. (V1). 1855, xliii[25]

—   >3  Matamoras.               Daily News, Newport, RI. “Later from Brazos.” 10-28-1847, p. 2.[26]

 

Louisiana, New Orleans and Vicinity

 

Fenner: “During the epidemic of 1847 the Howard Association had under their charge and attention eleven hundred and fifty-four cases, of which one hundred and twenty-two died, and one thousand and thirty-two were discharged cured….[27]

 

“I should not omit to mention in this connection that there were 2811 patients admitted for yellow fever into the New Orleans Charity Hospital. Nor should I omit to mention, injustice to the medical profession of this city, that 12,368 patients were admitted into this institution and treated gratuitously during the year 1847. The able house surgeon, whose whole time and attention are occupied in the discharge of his onerous duties, is the only medical man that receives any compensation for the vast amount of professional service rendered at this large hospital.”  (Fenner 1848, 188.)

 

“The late Epidemic was probably the most extensive that ever prevailed in this city. As to its severity and mortality there may be difference of opinion. It is impossible to make a correct computation of the whole number of cases. Some have estimated it as high as twenty or twenty-jive thousand, but we are inclined to think either of these calculations above the truth. As to the mortality, the reports from the cemeteries, as well as they could be obtained by the Board of Health, only make out something upwards of 2,300 from yellow fever; but this is again thought by many to be far short of the reality. It is much to be regretted that we cannot obtain greater precision in such important details. The fever raged as an epidemic about two months, and the greatest mortality from it was in September, when the number of deaths reported to the Board of Health, amounted to 1,044.

 

“…it would seem to be almost useless to write anything more on the subject of yellow fever. We really believe that the archives of the profession already contain every thing that need be said on the subject; and yet the world is but little wiser in regard to it than it was half a century ago. Every debatable question which was then discussed, in relation to its cause, nature, propagation and treatment, still remains undecided; and, with the exception of a single point (black vomit), there seems to be as great a diversity of opinion at this moment, as at any previous period. We believe the physicians of New Orleans and Mobile have completely settled the point, that black vomit is a hemorrhage from the stomach; but, doubtless, there are some who do not even admit this. Medical are very much like religious controversies: in either case, when men have formed and expressed opinions, they seem to shut their eyes against all farther light, and hold on to them with like pertinacity.”  (Fenner 1848, 189-190.)

 

“….We will here simple state a few facts relating to the late epidemic, which we think can be fully substantiated….

 

….3. Soon after the first of July, severe remittents [a diagnosis referred to as remittent fever] became common; some of them terminating in hemorrhages and black vomit. Yellow Fever was now announced.

  1. The yellow fever raged in Vera Cruz [Mexico] in May and June; the intercourse between this city and that, at the time, was very great; hundreds of discharged soldiers were returning from Vera Cruz to this place, some of them convalescents from yellow fever, but hardly any laboring under it.
  2. On the 22d of June a man, recently from Vera Cruz, died of black vomit at a hotel in Lafayette. He occupied a large room with some ten or fifteen other persons. None of these are known to have been sick soon afterwards.
  3. The next death from black vomit in Lafayette, occurred about the 18th July; four or five squares distant from the first.
  4. The first death from black vomit in New Orleans, occurred in an Irishman in the rear of the city, near the Charity Hospital. This occurred about the 1st of July.
  5. The first death from the same that occurred at the Charity Hospital, was on the 6th of July.
  6. The next ten deaths at the same hospital were from different parts of the city, showing no other connection between each other, except that a man and his wife were sick in the same house.
  7. August came — deaths with black vomit were frequent, and yellow fever was pronounced Epidemic.

….14. In the early stage; of mild attacks of fever, no one would pronounce a definite diagnosis: if promptly relieved, it was not yellow fever: if it terminated fatally, all doubt was removed.

….16. September came — and the epidemic raged with its greatest violence, affecting to a greater or less extent all ages, sexes, castes and conditions, natives and. foreigners. Yet all were not sick: many escaped who had never had the fever, and some who had never spent a summer here before.

  1. Many Creoles or natives had it, both white and colored, though the disease was evidently milder with these and with unacclimated negroes.
  2. A number of persons had the fever for the second and third time, and some had it who had escaped several previous epidemics. One of the worst cases we saw was an intelligent Irishman, who said he had nearly died of it in 1825, and had lived here ever since, excepting 17 months spent in Mobile. He recovered, after having hemorrhage from the mouth and turning very yellow.
  3. Recent settlers in the city, especially the poorer class, evidently suffered the most, above all, those who were much exposed to the sun.
  4. The fever prevailed throughout the entire limits of the city and Lafayette, which lies on the river, immediately above; and to the greatest extent, wherever were to be found the greatest number of poor and unacclimated people. The extent and violence of the disease seemed to be governed more by the last mentioned fact, than by any thing else pertaining to the different localities.
  5. Many persons who left the city late in the summer, were attacked on their journey; and some who came in late were attacked within a very short time after their arrival, especially if much exposed to the sun.
  6. October came — and, on its approach, what is called yellow fever most rapidly declined; the monthly number of deaths having fallen from 1044 down to 198. The comparative number of intermittents now began to increase again, and when, neglected or maltreated, many of them ran into yellow fever: if promptly relieved, of course they were but simple intermittents.
  7. During the month of October the weather was mild, fair and beautiful, hardly approaching within 20 degrees of frost.
  8. November came — and with it our travelling citizens, together with the vast number of persons who annually come to New Orleans to do business in the winter season. The papers had announced that the epidemic had disappeared, and every body returned to their homes and avocations. But yellow fever was not yet extinct; sporadic cases were to be seen in different parts of the city. The deaths from it reported for this month were 12. The weather continued so warm for the first half of the month as to render fires almost useless. The city was so rapidly filled as to give rise to some apprehension that the epidemic would be renewed; but such was not the case. It had run its career and was gradually dying away.
  9. During this month European emigrants commenced pouring into our city, bringing with them their fatal companion typhoid or ship fever. It was most curious to observe with what facility the subjects of this fever assumed the characteristic symptoms of yellow fever after entering the Mississippi river. Some who had escaped sickness during the long voyage by sea, were attacked soon after entering the city, and, going into hospital, in seven or eight days presented hemorrhage from the gums and yellowness of the skin. One or two cases terminated fatally with black vomit. Through the politeness of Dr. Ker, we were shown several of these cases at the Marine Hospital.
  10. On the 25th of November the weather suddenly turned very cold, and on the 26th and 27th there was ice in the gutters. On the 28th, white frost.
  11. The last death from yellow fever was reported in the weekly report of the Board of Health for the 25th December. There were ten deaths from yellow fever in this month.
  12. Yellow fever prevailed this year at the following places, viz; Mobile, Galveston, Alexandria, (on Red river) Vicksburg and Rodney, on the Mississippi river; all having constant communication with New Orleans. There were also some cases at Baton Rouge and Plaquemine; whereas Natchez, Grand Gulf, and, we believe, St. Francisville escaped….” (Fenner 1848, 190-192.)

 

“….Whole number of rainy days during the year, 106. Whole quantity of rain, 97 3/4 inches. It will thus be seen that the weather throughout the year was for the most part…remarkably wet. The quantity of rain that fell is quite extraordinary. The wettest month was July, during which it rained 22 days.” (Fenner 1848, 194.)

 

“….Intercourse with Vera Cruz. — In the month of March, the city of Vera Cruz, (considered to be the favorite abode of yellow fever,) was taken by our invading army under the command of Gen. Scott, and from that time the intercourse between this city and that has been constant and most extensive. As the main body of our army proceeded from Vera Cruz on towards the city of Mexico, everything in the way of men, arms, ammunition and provisions had necessarily to pass through the former place. Throughout the year, new regiments continued to go to this line of operations, and the discharged, the sick and disabled were constantly returning to this place. From the best information I could procure, Vera Cruz has never been entirely free from yellow fever since it fell into our hands….” (Fenner 1848, pp. 194-195.)

 

“Sanitary condition of the City.—The city was, perhaps, never in a more filthy condition than it was throughout this year. Notwithstanding the admonitions of the Board of Health and the remarks on the condition of the streets offered by the editors of this Journal and the newspaper press, from time to time, our city authorities took no precautions against sickness. Even the customary very imperfect measures for cleaning the streets were more neglected than usual. New Orleans is notoriously a dirty place, but in 1847 it may be said to have luxuriated in filth. In the month of April, the river rose very high, and for a week or two, poured through the cross streets into the swamp in the rear of the city. At the highest stage of water, a crevasse occurred opposite the city, in the little town of Algiers. A vast quantity of water escaped in that direction, before the crevasse was repaired. After this, stagnant water remained upon the Bingaman race-track until it disappeared by evaporation.[28] Nothing more need be said about the hygienic condition of the city, as it was about as bad as it could be.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 197.)

 

“….As usual, the epidemic fevers[29] gradually assumed a graver type, as the season advanced. Remittent bilious fever increased considerably in June, and soon after the 1st of July, was merged into yellow fever. Some of the severe cases of remittent fever resembled yellow fever so much that they would have unquestionably been pronounced such, if they had occurred a month later. Indeed, cases much less strongly marked than some of these, were pronounced yellow fever during the prevalence of the epidemic. But it is customary here not to call any thing originating here yellow fever, early in the season, unless black vomit is seen, or has occurred. If the patient should have recently arrived from Vera Cruz or Havana, he will be pronounced yellow fever, no matter how light his symptoms.

 

“Let us now see how the disease began and when it was declared to be epidemic by the Board of Health. The term epidemic is used in this city as much to designate the amount of yellow fever, as anything else. Hence we sometimes hear people say – ‘we have a good many cases of yellow fever, but it is not epidemic.’ Also the inquiries – ‘have you any yellow fever? ‘Yes.’ ‘Is it epidemic? ‘No, or yes’ — as the case may be. From such remarks it may also be inferred that yellow fever, in its early stages, does not always present such peculiar and decided symptoms as invariably distinguish the disease.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 198.)

 

“…On the 12th of July the Board of Health report the whole number of interments in the city, for the week ending July 10th, as having been 138, and make the first public announcement of the appearance of yellow fever. The following extract is taken from their proceedings, published in the papers of the day:

 

Meeting of the Board of Health, Monday, July 12th, 1847.

 

Five deaths from yellow fever have occurred in the Charity Hospital, and two or three cases are still under treatment in that institution. They appear to have originated in the city; and no facts have come to light to prove any connection between these cases and the fever prevailing at Vera Cruz, or other foreign ports.

 

(Signed) W. P. HORT, Chairman. A. Hester, Secretary.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 201.)

 

“In their report for the week ending July 17th, the Board of Health say the whole number of interments was 143; of which 6 died of yellow fever.

 

“In their next weekly report, up to July 24th, the whole number of deaths reported, is 131; of which 16 were from yellow fever.

 

“In their next report for the week ending July 31st the whole number of deaths is 177; of which 47 were from yellow fever. In this report, the Board announce the approach of the epidemic, as follows:

Board of Health, August 2, 1847.

 

It having been well established by the observations of the physicians of the city, that the yellow fever is now prevailing in nearly every part of it, and further appearing by the reports of the medical men, of the public and private hospitals, and of the cemeteries, that the cases of this disease have been numerous during the past week, and forty seven thereof fatal—it becomes the duty of this Board to apprise the public, and particularly the unacclimated, that we are on the eve of an epidemic, that the latter may prepare to absent themselves in time, and avoid such exposure and imprudence as may increase their susceptibility to the disease.

 

(Signed) WARREN STONE, Chairman.  A. Hester, Secretary.

 

“From this time daily reports were published in the city newspapers, and the deaths from yellow fever alone during the next week were 133.  The disease and the mortality continued to increase, and pervaded all ranks of society throughout the whole extent of the city.”  (Fenner 1848, pp. 201-202.)

 

“….Termination of the Epidemic.—On the 18th of October the Board of Health published the following statement:

 

Meeting of the Board of Health, October 18th, 1847.

The Board of Health feels authorized to make the announcement that the yellow fever, which has been prevailing as an epidemic, has for some time ceased to exhibit this character, and as such has now disappeared. At the same time it is proper to state, that the sporadic cases, which have always been seen for one or two months after the disappearance of epidemic yellow fever, must still be expected to prevail.

 

(Signed) WARREN STONE, Chairman. W. T. Brent, Secretary pro tern.”  (Fenner 1848, 202.)

 

“….As regards our own city, those quarters suffered the most which contained the largest number of recent and unacclimated inhabitants.  Amongst these, the poorer classes, as usual, suffered the most…” (Fenner 1848, p. 205.)

 

“The population about New Orleans is proverbially restless and moveable; hence many persons were taken sick on their passage from the city — some on board of steamboats going up the river; others at the summer retreats across the lake, as Covington and Mandeville, Pass Christian, Pascagoula, Biloxi, &c.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 205.)

 

“Mortality.—The number of deaths from yellow fever reported to the Board of Health by the sextons of the New Orleans cemeteries was 2306. The number of interments from yellow fever in the Lafayette Cemetery, as published in the “National” a city newspaper, date 23d October, was 613. One of the New Orleans sextons neglected to report for two or three weeks. Many who died in this city were interred in Lafayette and vice versa. I am inclined to think that 3000 would not be short of the number who died of yellow fever, in the two cities. Amongst them there were twenty-three natives[30] of New Orleans — mostly children.”  (Fenner 1848, pp. 205-206.)

 

“….It is the general opinion here and elsewhere, that if a person have yellow fever once, he will have it no more, provided he continues to reside in yellow fever localities. Now, that a strong attack of this fever does effect a great degree of immunity from it in future, does not admit of a doubt; but this is certainly not the case with mild attacks. Nor is the immunity just allowed, to be compared with that effected by an attack of small-pox, measles, whooping-cough or scarlatina, as I have heard asserted.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 206.)

 

“….Negroes and Colored People. — All colored people recently settled in New Orleans are liable to have yellow fever, perhaps equally as much as white people; but from some cause or other, the disease is certainly much milder amongst them. The number of attacks amongst negroes this year was very great, yet the mortality was extremely small. Mulattoes evidently suffered much more than blacks.

 

“Escapes from the Epidemic. — Notwithstanding the general prevalence of yellow fever in 1847, many persons who had but recently settled here and had never had the disease, escaped this year. On the other hand, there were instances of persons who had resided here a number of years, escaped all the epidemics subsequent to 1840, and had the fever this year. There are numerous instances of persons who have resided here 15 or 20 years, without ever having yellow fever. These facts go to prove that a person may by some years residence become just as secure against the disease as if he suffers an attack; also that neither an attack nor acclimation will effect an invariable immunity.”  (Fenner 1848, p. 206.)

 

“….Treatment. — What shall I say under this head? Such is the diversity of theory and practice pursued in yellow fever by the physicians of New Orleans, that it would be altogether vain for me to attempt to delineate it. Suffice it to say, that every conceivable variety of practice is pursued, from the use of the most heroic remedies, down to a virtual dependence on the vis medicatrix naturae.[31]….

 

“In reflecting on the various remedies and plans of treatment in yellow fever presented to my view in the course of a pretty extensive and careful observation at the Charity Hospital, in the walks of private practice, and in conversation with my medical brethren, I think the whole may be designated under the following two general plans of theory and practice, viz., the abortive and the rational or eclectic plan.

 

  1. The Abortive Method.—The object of this method is to cut short the fever as soon as possible. It was pursued by a few bold practitioners, who, however, resorted to very different means for its accomplishment: one set relied almost exclusively upon blood-letting, the other equally as much upon the sulphate of quinine. The blood-letting plan is as follows:—as soon as the chilly stage is passed and reaction fully established, the patient is set up in bed and bled in a full stream to syncope [fainting]; a purgative enema and hot mustard foot bath are then administered. Reaction takes place, and when fully developed, the bleeding is repeated as before. And so on, as the reaction is strong and the patient can bear it. If the patient is unable to bear venesection [drawing blood from a vein], local depletion, by means of cups or leeches to the chief seat of pain, is resorted to. Some patients require to be bled four or five times, but generally not more than one or two free bleedings; with perhaps some cups or leeches. No medicine is given by the mouth,—the bowels are kept freely moved by enemata. The foot-baths and sponging the body are repeated pro re nata [as needed], with cold drinks and light covering, complete the treatment. This is the depleting plan par excellence, as practiced by the late Dr. Luzenberg, Dr. Beugnot and a few other leading physicians below Canal street. There are others who follow this plan somewhat modified—they deplete all cases and freely, but they give medicines also. If the patient be of such a temperament or in such a condition that he cannot be bled, local depletion is depended on; but these gentlemen look upon all such as have severe attacks and cannot bear the loss of blood, as being very dangerous.” (Fenner 1848, pp. 207-208.)

 

“The Quinine Method….As practiced by Dr. McCormick, it is as follows:—when the fever is fully developed, a purgative enema and mustard foot-bath are first used, and from 15 to 30 grains of quinine then given to subdue the fever. If the pain in the head is very violent, he is bled from the arm, or cups are applied to the mastoids; otherwise, blood-letting is dispensed with. The large dose of quinine seldom fails to reduce the excitement in a few hours, and then he gives 15 or 20 grains of calomel with or without as much of the quinine combined.  The foot-baths and enemata are repeated pro re nata; the bowels are freely purged; the fever vanishes, and the patient seldom requires more than the third dose of quinine…..

 

“There is one thing worthy of special notice in connection with this method of treating yellow fever, which is, that although the fever may be cut short, the disease is not always necessarily removed. Convalescence is not at once established; but the patient occasionally lingers in a feeble, though cool, quiet and painless state for some days, and then sometimes dies with black vomit. It would seem that the alterations in the blood, &c., produced by the morbific cause, still go on, to terminate in health or death, although what is called the fever is extinguished….It has been remarked, that even when the fever was not cut short by any potent medicine, but spontaneously subsided in 24 or 36 hours, as it sometimes does under the use of mild remedies, the prostration would be as great and the convalescence as tedious as if the fever had run its usual course for 72 hours….” (Fenner 1848, 209.)

 

“As to the fact that patients are sometimes unexpectedly lost after all fever and pain are subdued. Dr. Wedderburn says that in all such cases as have come under his observation, it proceeded from the most culpable imprudence. They are so promptly relieved of all pain and fever, that they do not allow sufficient time for the system to recover from the shock it has sustained.” (Fenner 1848, 210.)

 

“….2. The Rational or Eclectic Method.—This method is founded on experience and rational observation, but independent of scientific induction.  The object of this method is not to cut short the disease, or take it entirely out of the hands of nature; but rather to guide the patient through the natural stages of the fever, and to address proper remedies to the symptoms as they are presented. If blood-letting is plainly indicated, they bleed—if any particular organ seems to suffer most, they address their remedies chiefly to that, and so on….” (Fenner 1848, 210.)

 

“….It has been shown that the most robust class of people and at the most vigorous age are the favorite subjects of yellow fever. Such persons do not complain at trifles; they often pay but little attention to the first symptoms of disease, and only take to their beds when completely overpowered, thus losing the most important time for treatment and lessening their chances of recovery. Thus the hardy mechanic or outdoor laborer is often lost; whilst the more delicate, sensitive and prudent gentleman or lady is preserved….” (Fenner 1848, 212.)

 

From Dr. J. Gilpin of Covington[32] letter to Dr. Fenner:  “Several families of Germans and Dutch, who have resided in New Orleans two or three years, came over here the latter end of August to escape the fever in New Orleans, and took possession of some uninhabited houses. About the fifth day after their arrival, one man was taken sick; from what I can learn, no physician saw him for two days; he died the fourth day, with black-vomit. In the meantime another man and his wife (also emigrants) were taken down and both died in a similar way. After a day or two, two of our citizens who had been with the sick, and attending on them, were also taken down with a similar attack; and after this the disease spread generally through the immediate neighborhood where it is thickly inhabited; from this it spread through the town, except that portion where I reside, which is separated by a small branch from the town….I many safely estimate the number of cases from 160 to 180; out of which, with other diseases, there have been eleven deaths, one of which was from consumption, and ten of fever.

 

“I have seen eleven cases from New Orleans, who were taken sick either immediately on their arrival, or within a day or two after, some at Madisonville, some at Lewisburg, and some here….The persons have generally been attacked severely….There have been several instances of persons coming from the country to the town on business, several of whom soon after have been attacked with fever, and generally have died, mostly of black-vomit.  The fever has entirely subsided here for the last five or six days…”  (Gilpin in Fenner 1848, pp. 216-217.)

 

From letter of Dr. W. G. Williams of Rodney, Mississippi to Dr. Fenner:  “It is my opinion that the first individual who died of yellow fever was a man who returned to this place from New Orleans, sick, about the 18th or 19th of July, 1847, and who died on the 23d….On the 27th of this month and on the 11th of August, two individuals were taken sick in the same or an adjoining room. These were his attendants. One of them…informs me he was confined about a week; had fever, but does not know what was the matter with him….Between this time and the 27th of August, some whites and a number of blacks, were sick in this immediate vicinity. On the night of the 30th of August I was called to see a man in this part of the town, and found him dying of hemorrhage from the bowels. He had been complaining of indisposition a few days, took his bed on the 27th and died of yellow fever on the 30th, with hemorrhage. An individual who was in his room when I saw him, and much about him during his illness, was the next person I was called to see, sick of this disease, and this was on the 2d of Sept….On the 8th, we concluded we were on the eve of an epidemic, and by the 15th the disease pervaded the entire place.

 

“On the morning of the 8th or 9th, I was called to see a man who had been ailing for some time, and who was supposed to be jaundiced. He was able to walk about his room at the time I saw him. His tongue was clean. His hands were cold. His pulse thready. His countenance was expressive of both despondency and indifference. His intellect seemed clear, but when interrogated, he replied in a deliberate, and abstracted manner. He became delirious on the evening of the day I saw him, and died with black vomit the day following. The next person I was called to see, was a man who was much with the individual above alluded to and occupied the next house. The progress of this case was rapid, as black vomit made its appearance in 30 hours from the commencement of attack. Up to this period, we had much contention respecting the true nature of the disease, but the circumstances of this case, particularly the vomit (which was the unmistakable coffee grounds) convinced the most skeptical. The disease was characterized by the same general features as in 1843. No one who had the disease here in 1843 took it this season, and very few, probably not more than five or six who never had the disease, escaped. This is as true of our negroes as of our white citizens. The disease ceased for a time before frost, the mornings became very cool, and frost was reported to have been seen. This induced a number of our citizens to return, several of whom took the disease. This occurred as late as the 9th of November….”  (Fenner 1848, 217-219.)

 

(Fenner, E. D., M.D. The Epidemic of 1847: or, Brief Accounts of the Yellow Fever that Prevailed at New-Orleans, Vicksburg, Rodney, Natchez, Houston and Covington. (modified from No. 2, Vol. 5,[33] New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, Sep 1848). New Orleans: Joseph Cohn Printers, 1848.)

 

Sep 2 Report: “The St. Louis Republican has a correspondent at New Orleans who writes than on the 2d there were 3000 cases of Yellow Fever…in the city, and that not half the deaths that take place are reported and says also that:  The Board of Physicians have called a meeting to determine what to call the prevailing epidemic – some say yellow fever…some a combination of yellow and ship fever….

 

“The old residents are themselves frightened, and a great number are leaving the city – but to make it worse, the fever has commenced at Pass Christian, Biloxi and Bay of St. Louis….The Board of Health of Mobile have declared the sickness in their city an epidemic. The fever is raging now in Pensacola, where it has not been known for many years. Truly, this is a horrible state of things. The physicians have declared this to be the worst epidemic ever known in this city, and I would warn all persons unacclimated, not to come to New Orleans before frost.”  (Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “The Yellow Fever at New Orleans.” 9-22-1847, p. 2, col. 3.)

 

Sep 6 report:  “A correspondent of the Baltimore Sun, writing from New Orleans under date of the 6th September, gives the following account of the ravages of the Yellow Fever in that city, its effects on the human system, &c.

 

“I write in the midst of an epidemic such as New Orleans never knew before. Truly, grim death stalks unresisted through the streets of this devoted city. Oh, it sickens the heart to see the plumed hearses thronging the cemeteries — to see them hurrying along the thoroughfares, unattended, in most cases, by even a single friend, to see the ashes of the departed in-urn’d.  From early dawn to dark, and in the gloom of night, sable conveyances may be seen — with nodding plumes, like grim sentinels over the coffin’d corpse within — passing hastily towards the depositories for the dead; and almost hourly the rolling of the muffled drum, or the mournful music of mellow horns, proclaim that another of the civic or military brotherhood is attended to the tomb by those with whom he so lately associated. It is enough to strike terror to the stoutest heart, to walk the deserted streets.  On every hand are heard the notes of woe. At one moment the tone of fervent prayer for the dying strikes the ear; a little farther on, and wailings for the dead break the silence. None are exempt from the dreadful scourge which is wielded by the fell tyrant. The strokes fall to rise no more. And here I will take the liberty to cull from the New Orleans Medical Journal, from an article written by one of the ablest physicians in the South, an extract, showing that none are exempt, and also giving your readers an idea of the yellow fever, and the wondrous haste with which it lays those low whom it attacks.

 

‘Persons unaccustomed to yellow fever localities are generally subject to this form of disease, it matters not whether they are from the North or residents of Southern country. Should they arrive in the city during the prevalence of the disease, they are generally attacked between the sixth and fourteenth day after exposure.— Should they have been settled in the city, previous to the appearance of disease, they may escape for several weeks. No precaution or careful attention to bodily health will insure immunity from attack. In the midst of the best health and vigor, they are often stricken down. Without the slightest warning, probably while asleep, the patient is seized with a chill or pain in the head, with cold creeping sensations. In a few minutes, fever comes on, the skin is hot, pulse 110 or 120, pain in the head, back, and limbs, very severe, the latter being of that character known as the ‘broken bone pain.’ In eight or ten hours the fever is modified, the

skin becomes moist, pain in the dead less, tongue slightly furred, pulse down to 90 or 100, full and pubbling, having lost the hardness or attension a short time previous.

 

‘This stage, which is designated as the febrile, lasts from 30 to 50 hours in that class of cases to which attention is now directed. After this fever has disappeared, we find the patient in what is called the calm pr passive stage of the disease. The pulse has sunk to the natural standard, the secretions diminished, evacuations scanty, ash colored, and inodorous, the eye muddy and yellow, the countenance gloomy, dejected or sottish.

 

‘In some patients the skin is injected, as of dark red or brown color, while with others it is a deep yellow or light lemon tinge. For the most part, the patient does not complain, is not troubled with inordinate thirst, has no nausea, yet does not desire food. This State continues for two or three days, when another, the ‘collapse,’ or critical stage, approaches. As this latter period in the disease advances, it will be discovered that the pulse has dropped down to 60 or 70, is full, but gaseous and compressible, the skin continues moist, but not so warm.— The patient speaks slowly, drawing out a syllable at a time; he is evidently growing weaker, hangs his head on the side of the bed, hugs the pillow closely. If he does not rally at this point he grows more restless, he sighs and groans, the secretions are all stopped, the skin becomes cold, his features are sharper, the upper lip thin and trembling, black-vomit is thrown up, and he soon dies.’

 

“It cannot be disguised that this terrible disease rages more violently and with more malignancy than ever before in this city. 1834 and 1841 were distinguished as the most sickly seasons in New Orleans. In the former year there were 2236 deaths; in the latter 2231. In 1833 the city was visited by the yellow fever and cholera. The deaths that year were 2758.  But thus far the average number of deaths exceed any former season, and there is no reason to hope for a decrease until the near approach of the winter months. Business is suspended — anxiety is depicted on every countenance, and general gloom prevails. Some few strangers have the hardihood to venture here, but in seven cases out of ten they pay dearly for their temerity. Those who are here, and have lived through the epidemic, fear to leave the city now.  The expressed opinion of many of our ablest medical men is, that there is more danger in leaving than in remaining — and then, if attacked, a sufficient knowledge, of the disease is not professed by physicians but out the city, to treat it properly and successfully.

 

“Within a few days the medical authorities of Mobile have announced that the epidemic prevails in the Gulf city.

 

“Natchez, Vicksburgh, and other towns on the Mississippi, have established quarantine laws, and no passengers from New Orleans are allowed to enter their boundaries under four and twenty hours.

 

“Vessels from foreign ports are not subject to quarantine laws here, for none are in existence – and the crowds of miserable wretches which are put ashore are fit subjects for the yellow fever which mows them down by scores. Turn we from this frightful picture.”  (Indiana Palladium, Vevay, IN. “The Yellow Fever at New Orleans.” 10-2-1847, p. 1, col. 2.)

 

Oct 5 report:  “From the N.O. Picayune. The Epidemic. – Upon tho close of another week we have but a few words to offer upon the all-engaging theme of the epidemic. The number of victims carried off by yellow fever during the seven days ending Saturday morning, at nine o’clock, was 402 against 427 the previous week. The total number of interments in the city during the same period has been 513 against 533 the previous week. In the above we do not reckon those from this city who have been interred at Lafayette. The Charity Hospital during the week ending last evening shows a total of admission of 350 and 100 deaths of yellow fever against 445 admissions and 128 deaths the previous week. The Lafayette reports show 115 interments of yellow fever for the week, against 111 the previous week.

 

“Thus it will be seen that upon the whole the number of deaths is but very slightly diminishing, while it is no doubt true that the number of cases treated is diminishing.  The conclusion…[is] while from the want of victims the reports of interments may appear less appalling, yet in fact the virulence of the fever is increasing with the advance of the season. This is the usual course of the epidemic, and we draw therefrom the obvious caution of yet close avoidance of exposure on the part of those who have thus far escaped…But, all things, it becomes us to caution new residents not to enter the city fill frosts has effectually driven away the pestilence.  For the sake of humanity let Northern editors dissuade those in search of employment from coming here too early….”  (Whig Standard, Hillsdale, MI. “The Pestilence at New Orleans.” 10-5-1747, p. 3.)

 

Select Sources

 

Augustin, George. History of Yellow Fever. New Orleans: Published for the Author by Search & Pfaff Ltd., 1909; General Books reprint, Memphis, TN, 2010. 1909 copy digitized at: http://archive.org/stream/historyofyellowf00auguuoft#page/n4/mode/1up

 

Brown, Harvey E., Assistant Surgeon, U.S. Army. Quarantine on the Southern and Gulf Coasts. Washington: December 2,1872. Transmitted by Letter from The Secretary of War, Communicating, In obedience to law, information in relation to quarantine on the Southern and Gulf Coasts (Senate Documents, 42d Congress, 3d Session, Executive Document No. 9; in: United States Congress, Senate. Index to the Senate Executive Documents for the Third Session of the Forty-Second Congress of the United States of America, 1872-´73, in one Volume. Washington: GPO, 1873.) Accessed 8-23-2013 at: http://books.google.com/books?id=zI0FAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Carrigan, Jo Ann. The Saffron Scourge: A History of Yellow Fever in Louisiana, 1796-1905 (Doctoral Dissertation). Louisiana State University, LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses, 1961. Accessed 3-11-2018 at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1665&context=gradschool_disstheses

 

Fenner, Dr. E.D. History of the Epidemic Yellow Fever at New Orleans, LA. In 1853. New York:  Hall, Clayton & Co., Printers, 1854, 84 pages. Digitized by Google. Accessed at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=d2U-AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=yellow+fever+1853&ei=eOIxSfDIGaj-yASg7sSKDg#PPA56,M1

 

Fenner, Dr. E.D. “Reports From Louisiana.” Southern Medical Reports (Vol. II, 1850). New Orleans: D. Davies, 1851. Digitized by Google at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=6NhXAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=true

 

Fenner, E. D., M.D. The Epidemic of 1847: or, Brief Accounts of the Yellow Fever that Prevailed at New-Orleans, Vicksburg, Rodney, Natchez, Houston and Covington. (Modified from No. 2, Vol. 5, New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, Sep 1848). New Orleans: Joseph Cohn Printers, 1848. Accessed at: http://archive.org/details/epidemicof1847or00fenn

 

Keating, J. M. A History of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 in Memphis, Tenn. Memphis, TN:  Howard Association, 1879. Google digitized at: http://books.google.com/books?id=WEIJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Ketchum, George A. “Notes on the Topography, Sanitary Condition and Vital Statistics of Mobile, Ala.” Reports From Alabama, Article I, Southern Medical Reports, 1851, pp. 301-307.  Google digitized: http://books.google.com/books?id=6NhXAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=true

 

Rowland, Dunbar (Director, Mississippi Department of Archives and History). Mississippi – Comprising Sketches of Counties, Towns, Events, Institutions, and Persons, Arranged in Cyclopedic Form (Vol. 2 of 3). Atlanta: Southern Historical Publishing Association, 1907. Google digitized: http://books.google.com/books?id=EJ4yAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Simonds, J.C. “On the Sanitary Condition of New Orleans, as Illustrated by its Mortuary Statistics.” Article IX in Fenner, “Reports…Louisiana.” Southern Medical Reports, 1851, 204-246. Google digitized:  http://books.google.com/books?id=6NhXAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=true

                                                      

Sternberg, George M. (US Public Health Service, US Marine Hospital Service). “Yellow Fever:  History and Geographic Distribution.”  Pages 715-722 in Stedman, Thomas L., M.D. (Ed.) Appendix to the Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences. NY: William Wood & Co., 1908.  Google digitized: http://books.google.com/books?id=3ezqX415M5wC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Toner, Joseph M. (M.D., President, American Medical Association). “The Distribution and Natural History of Yellow Fever as it has Occurred at Different Times in the United States” (Paper read before the American Public Health Association, November 12, 1873). Washington, DC: 1873, 33 pages. Accessed 8-23-2013 at: http://cdm16313.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/LSUBK01/id/10240/rec/19

 

United States Marine Hospital Service, Treasury Department. Annual Report of the Supervising Surgeon-General of the Marine-Hospital Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1895 (Document No. 1811). Washington: GPO, 1896. Digitized by Google at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=aTnxAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “The Yellow Fever at New Orleans.” 9-22-1847, p. 2, col. 3.

 

Whig Standard, Hillsdale, MI. “The Pestilence at New Orleans.” 10-5-1847, p. 3.

 

Willsey, Joseph H. and Charlton Thomas Lewis (eds.). Harper’s Book of Facts. New York:  Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1895, 954 pp. Digitized by Google. Accessed at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=UcwGAAAAYAAJ

 

 

 

 

[1] Given the notations below of locality yellow fever occurrences without mention of fatalities, wherein presumably there were some, we do not hesitate to round-up from 3,397 to 3,400.

[2] Cites Brown, Quarantine, 1872, and Fenner, Southern Medical Reports, Vol. 2, p. 304.

[3] At page 213 writes “There was a pretty severe epidemic at Alexandria, on Red River.”

[4] “Alexandria…suffered a rather serious attack.”

[5] She writes that the fever “prevailed to a considerable extent in the vicinity of New Orleans at…Algiers.”

[6] She writes that the fever “prevailed to a considerable extent in the vicinity of New Orleans at…Carrollton….”

[7] Fatality number is in a letter dated 10-22-1847 from Dr. J. Gilpin of Covington, in response to Fenner inquiry.

[8] J. Strider, attached to Army Quartermaster’s Service, returned from Vera Cruz on about June 17.

[9] The dating depends on our assumption that the article appearing on Oct 5 refers to deaths the previous week.

[10] Cites: Augustin, Fenner, Toner (in “Sources” below), and Davis (ed.). Plantation Life in the Florida Parishes. P.306’ Corinne L. Saucier, History of Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana (Gretna, Firebird Press Book, 1998), p. 112; and New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, Vol. V (September 1848), p. 216.

[11] “The great Epidemic of 1847 only caused about 3000 deaths in this city [NO] and Lafayette, which were then separate, but now united.” Noting the reporting of approximately 3,000 yellow fever deaths in New Orleans and Lafayette, Carrigan adds that there were “more than 600 deaths attributed to…twenty-seven [other] fevers.” And adds that “probably at least 200 should be added to the yellow fever total.” (The Saffron Scourge, 1961, p. 83.)

[12] Fenner notes that “many” thought this figure “to be far short of the reality.”

[13] Fenner notes his “then colleague, Dr. Hester…” compiled data from “published reports of the Board of Health.”

[14] A army musician returning from Vera Cruz and became sick on the steamer Massachusetts on way to NOLA. The Massachusetts brought 163 sick Army soldiers to New Orleans.

[15] The dating depends on our assumption that the article appearing on Oct 5 refers to deaths the previous week.

[16] The statistics are in a letter report made by Assistant Surgeon Sloan, General Hospital, New Orleans Barracks, to Surgeon R. C. Wood, dated 9-30-1847. There were 20 total cases amongst 411 patients, with 2 dying on Oct 8, 2 on Oct 12, 1 on Oct 18, 2 on Oct 21, and 1 on Nov 10.

[17] Noted to exist, but nothing said about fatalities.

[18] Noted to exist, but nothing said about fatalities.

[19] Number is from description of cases by Dr. Samuel A. Cartwright of Natchez in response to inquiry of Dr. Fenner.

[20] A former city in Jefferson County (Miss. River changed course), about 32 miles northeast of Natchez.

[21] Fenner (1848, p. 192) writes that Rodney “was severely scourged.” At pp. 217-219 Fenner reproduces a letter from Dr. W. G. Williams of Rodney, dated 2-10-1848 who notes his belief that “the first individual who died of yellow fever was a man who returned to this place from New Orleans, sick, about the 18th or 19th of July, 1847, and who died on the 23d.” (p. 217) Dr. Williams describes four deaths while noting that “on the 8th [Sep], we concluded we were on the eve of an epidemic, and by the 15th the disease pervaded the entire place….very few, probably not more than five or six who never had the disease, escaped.”

[22] The number of deaths comes from letter of Dr. B. J. Hicks, of Vicksburg, in response to inquiry by Dr. Fenner, dated 1-20-1948, and reproduced at pages 220-225.

[23] Rowland just notes the existence of yellow fever in Vicksburg.

[24] Number is from case descriptions by Dr. William McCraven of Houston in letter of 1-12-1848 to Dr. Fenner.

[25] Cites: McCraven, William. “On the Yellow Fever of Houston…, in 1847.” New Orleans Medical Journal, v. 227.

[26] “The Matamoras Flag of the 9th, says that the yellow fever there was on the increase. Fifty cases had occurred since the last paper. It was of a mild type – deaths comparatively few. A few cases had occurred at the Brazos, the mouth of the Rio Grande, introduced from Vera Cruz.

[27] From letter of G. W. Shaw, Secretary of the Howard Association to Dr. Fenner.

[28] Good conditions for the breeding of mosquitoes, who just need to bite an infected person and then an uninfected person to begin the spread of yellow fever.

[29] On previous page noted existence in June of “intermittent, remittent and typhoid fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, and…an extraordinary amount of typhus or ship fever.”

[30] From a later paragraph it appears that this is a reference to “Creoles.”

[31] Healing power of nature.

[32] North across Lake Pontchartrain from New Orleans, a few miles inland.

[33] In the text, at page 189, it is stated that this is a republication of editorial remarks made in Vol. 4, No. 4.