1854 — March 13, steamboat Reindeer boiler flue collapse, Ohio Riv., Cannelton, IN–40-46

–40-46 Blanchard estimated death-toll.*

–40-50 Brooklyn Daily Eagle, NY. “Steamboat Disaster.” 3-16-1854, p. 2, col. 1.
— 46 Alton Daily Telegraph, IL. “The Reindeer Victims,” 3-25-1854, p. 3, col. 1.**
— 42 New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster.” 3-17-1854, p. 2, col. 2.
–37 recovered bodies
— 5 unrecovered drowning victims
— ? “There are some others who cannot possibly long survive.”
— 40 Alton Weekly Courier, IL. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 23, 1854, p. 1, col. 3.
— 40 Blanchard compilation of named fatalities found in sources below (follows Narrative).
— 40 Gould, E. W. Fifty Years on the Mississippi… 1889, p. 437.
— 38 Board of Supervising Inspectors. Report of Board of [SIS]… Oct 10, 1854, p. 395.
— 38 Way’s Packet Directory, 1848-1994: Passenger Steamboats…[MS Riv. Sys.] 1999, p.391.
— 37 New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “The Steamer Reindeer…” 3-21-1854, p. 2, col. 1.
–37 deaths thus far.
–11 scalded survivors, some of whom it was thought would probably die.
— 36 Daily Pittsburgh Gazette, PA. “River News.” 3-24-1854, p. 3, col. 1.
–36 dead
–15 scalded injured “in a critical condition.”
— 28 Fort Wayne Times, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 22, 1854, p. 2, col. 4.
— 22 New York Daily-Times. “The Explosion of the Steamer Reindeer,” March 17, 1854, p. 4.
— 22 Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “Steamboat Explosion,” March 22, 1854, p. 3, col. 4.

* Blanchard estimated death-toll: Given the range of death numbers, our inability to track down the fate of eight or more critically scalded survivors, and the lack of a strong consensus on a definitive death toll, we choose to employ a range of deaths. For the low-end of this range we use the number of 38 reported by the Board of Supervising Inspectors of Steamboats and by Way.

Our own attempt to compile a list of fatalities comes to 39. This listing, however, suffers from several problems. For some of the entries it is not crystal clear that the person named was indeed a fatality, as opposed to an injured person. There is always the problem of incorrect listings of deaths, that sometimes are corrected afterwards as someone thought dead, but, as it turns out, not. Another problem is that our compilation does not adequately address the vague reports of the number of unidentified deck hands who were lost, nor the number of deck passengers and crew who went into the river, drowned, and not recovered (at least not in the papers we reviewed).

We choose to use the number 46 as the high-end of our estimated death-toll, as reported by the Alton Daily Telegraph of March 25, in that, given other reports of a higher death-toll than 40, as well as the reports of a large number of unidentified crew and passenger deaths, such a number appears to us to be entirely possible.

** “It is stated that, out of fifty-four persons on the deck of the Reindeer at the time her flue collapsed, forty six had died up to last Sunday evening [19th]. The remaining eight are in the Louisville Hospital; and some of them, it is feared, cannon recover.”

Narrative Information

Board of Supervising Inspectors: “The only accident in this district [Sixth], by steam, has been the collapse of a flue on board the steamer “Reindeer,” in March last, by which thirty-eight lives were lost. Upon investigation, this accident was attributed to negligence and carelessness on the part of the engineer in charge. His license was therefore revoked; but as he soon after died from injuries received at the time, a further prosecution, which was intended, became impracticable.” (Board of Supervising Inspectors. Report of… “Sixth Supervising District.” Oct 10, 1854, p. 395.)

Way: Reindeer. Sidewheel wood-hull packet built in 1851 in New Albany, IN, at 407 tons. “Ran Louisville-New Orleans, and in 1853 came up in 4 days 19 hours 45 minutes, a record to that date. Sold to St. Louis parties and on the delivery trip collapsed a flue at Cannelton, Ind., Mar. 13, 1854, at 10:00 P.M. The Europa landed her and there was a life loss of 38. Next morning the Magnolia towed the wreck to Hawesville where the victims were given a mass burial. A tombstone marks the site…” (Way’s Packet Directory, 1848-1994: Passenger Steamboats…[MS Riv. Sys.] 1999, p. 391.)

Newspapers

March 15: “The steamer Reindeer, which left this port on Monday afternoon [13th] for St. Louis, met with a most dreadful accident at Cannelton.

“While rounding out from that place, where she had been taking on coal, at about 8 o’clock on Monday evening, she collapsed the flues of her starboard boiler, both ends being blown out with great force, and most fatal effect.

“The lower deck was crowded with passengers and the hands belonging to the boat, of whom nearly all were either killed outright, or severely wounded.

“We learn by the passengers on the steamer Midas, which left the place of the disaster at 9 o’clock yesterday morning, that the scene on board the Reindeer was the most appalling and moving nature. The wounded lay on mattresses scattered over the boat, their groans of agony and the piteous cries for help of the scalded and mangled victims, being perfectly heart-rending.

“Eighteen persons were dead when the Midas left, and others of the wounded could not possibly recover.

“Of those who were killed were Daniel Mullen, mate, who was struck on the head by a piece of iron, mutilating him in a dreadful manner. His corpse was brought to this city on the Midas. Frederick Ludwig second engineer, was in a dying condition when the Midas left. He was a gentleman endeared to all who enjoyed his acquaintance, and his death will throw a pall of sorrow over many hearts.

“Later. – An extra from the office of the Hawesville Eagle, favored us by Ad. Morecraft, pilot of the Reindeer, who came up on the Wm. Garvin this morning states the number of the killed at twenty-one and the scalded at forty.

“The accident, says the Eagle, was caused by the boat becoming entangled with a coal boat in rounding out, which caused her to careen, forcing the water into the starboard boiler, which was almost dry and at a red heat. Hence the terrible force of the explosion.

“The mate was the only persons from this place who was killed.” (New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “Terrible Disaster. Explosion of the Reindeer.” 3-15-1854, p. 2, col. 1.)

March 16: “An affecting incident was related to us this morning by a gentleman who was a witness to the dreadful scenes on board the Reindeer after the recent explosion. Two families, one of five, and the other of six persons, who removing from Ohio to Missouri, were all so badly scalded by the steam that they have sine died. A little girl of fire or six years of age who belonged to one of these families, and whose tender flesh was literally boiled, was laid alongside of her mother, whose spirit was passing in an agony of pain from its earthly tenement. Turning her eyes towards her mother, she said – ‘Ma, it is so dark; well we not soon get home.’ Poor child! Her eyes were darkened y the haze of death, and soon afterwards her spirit was unfettered and did go home, to live forever with angels.” (New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. 3-16-1854, p. 2, col. 2.)

March 17: “Twenty-two persons who were on the steamer Reindeer when the explosion took place…have died, and but little hopes are entertained of the recovery of 24 others.” (NY Daily-Times, March 17, 1854, p. 4.)

March 20: “A terrible steamboat explosion took place at Carrolton, Indiana, on Tuesday. The steamer Reindeer burst a flue, killing and wounding 50 persons; many were blown into the river and were drowned.” (Adams Sentinel, Gettysburg, PA. March 20, 1854, p. 5, col. 2.)

March 20: “Louisville, March 15. The Steamer Reindeer burst a flue at Cannelton, Ind., yesterday, scattering misery and death in all directions, forty or fifty persons killed and wounded….It seems the boat became entangled in some coal boats lying at Cannelton, which caused her to careen very much upon which the water passed out of two of the boilers, and the flues collapsed. Immediately after the explosion the Europe and the Magnolia came alongside the wreck and rendered all the assistance in their power. None of the officers, except the first mate and second engineer, were injured.” (Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, WI. “Explosion of the Reindeer.” March 20, 1854, p. 2.)

March 20: Louisville Journal:

We learn from two passengers on the Europa, which arrived here last night from below, that about 8 o’clock night before last, the steamer Reindeer, from this port bound to St. Louis, burst a flue just as she was leaving Cannelton…At the first revolution of the wheel, the flue burst. The steam rushed first forward, then through the deck, and finally enveloped the whole boat so that nothing was visible of it. The Europa was about 300 yards off, but in approaching the Reindeer, was run into by her, and the Europa’s guard from the bow to the boilers, was torn off. (Reprinted in NY Daily-Times, March 20, 1854, p. 1)

March 22: Fort Wayne Times, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 22, 1854, p. 2, col. 4:

“From the Cincinnati Commercial, 17th…Yesterday we had a long conversation with Capt. Hiram L. Hawley, of the steamer Europa, who was near the Reindeer when her flue collapsed, and knows as much of the cause and results of the accident as any man. The Reindeer and Europa were taking on coal fires [?]; rounded slowly out on the starboard wheel, about half past nine o’clock, and at the moment when her bow was directly down the stream, and while the second revolution of the larboard wheel was being made, a flue collapsed at both ends, and the deck was raked from stem to stern with a deluge of scalding water and steam. The sound of the explosion was sharp and its force overwhelming. Many persons were hurled headlong into the river, and others blinded by the steam and crazy with suffering rushed overboard. Some of those were saved; many were not.

“The wreck now floated helplessly, and the powerful flood-current bore her towards the bank, where she was in danger of annihilation from heavy, leaning sycamore trees. Steam was up on Europa, and with all possible speed Capt. Hawley went to the rescue. About three quarters of a mile below the scene of the explosion, the Europa got below the Reindeer, and stopped her by catching the bow of the Reindeer in her guard. The Europa was now in a bad fix.

“The engineers were hurried, and managed to ‘catch both engines on the centre,’ while the bow of the Reindeer was held by the Europa’s starboard guard, which it was tearing badly, the larboard guard of Europa was dashed against a tree and scraped off for some fifteen feet from the bow back. By this time the Europa’s engines were at work, and she maintained her position against the flood until the Reindeer was made fast.

“The wind was blowing a gale, and Capt. Hawley judged it impossible to tow the wreck back to Cannelton, so after rendering all assistance in his power to the wounded, and transferring all the medicine on his boat to the Reindeer, he resumed his course.

“On re-passing Cannelton, the wharf front was covered with people who were standing as if stupefied. ‘For God’s sake are there any doctors here?’ was shouted from the Europa to the crowd on the wharf. ‘Yes,” was the answer, accompanied by inquiries whether many persons were hurt. Capt. Hawley then called and told the people to go down to the wreck instantly, prepared to attend to a hundred wounded persons, and such skiffs as were at the landing were at once filled and on their way.

“A few rods above Cannelton; the Europa met the Magnolia, and hailing her, gave the news, and the statement that it was desirable for the Reindeer to be towed up to the landing.

“Capt. Hawley states that from the slow movements of the Reindeer in rounding out, and the manner in which she ‘escaped,’ he is perfectly confident she could not have had one hundred pounds steam, and that the accident was occasioned by the lowness of the water in the boilers, and then the boat, when coaling, careened considerably, and the flue that collapsed must have been out of the water. In that case it would become red-hot and soft, and when suddenly covered with water would give way to the pressure.

“Capt. Hawley was unable to give a reliable statement of the number of persons killed and injured. He was informed that the Reindeer’s crew consisted of thirty men, and after the accident not more than a dozen were safe. The steerage contained a large number of persons, of all whom were less or more injured. As he passed the Reindeer, after the accident, when endeavoring to check the progress, there were as many persons clinging to her rudder and yawl as could find room to hold on. He saw a number of men struggling in the water, most of whom certainly perished. A few persons were scalded by the steam in the cabin – one man while in his berth was ascertained to be desperately injured….The victims were…taken to the cabin, stripped of their clothing, and covered with oil and flour. Nearly sixty persons, uttering heart-rending moans and…unable to be calm in their great anguish, were under care in the cabin.

“One of the engineers was seen by Capt. Hawley lying dead on the engine. He thinks that not less than sixty or seventy persons were scalded, and that a large majority of them have or will die. The number lost by being blown, or by staggering overboard, it is impossible to know. The clerk will be able to tell how many persons were aboard, but he cannot know what became of the, as those who were not injured commenced leaving at once. One badly scalded person came up on the Europa, and was taken to the Commercial Hospital….

“We are indebted to Mr. S. B. Patterson, clerk of the Winfred Scott for some additional particulars. When the Scott passed Cannelton at 9 o’clock on Tuesday night, twenty-eight of the sufferers were dead, and there was little prospect of any of the others recovering.” (Fort Wayne Times, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 22, 1854, p. 2, col. 4.)

March 22 (Editorial): “The law passed by Congress during the session of 1852 and ’53, for the purpose of securing the greatest possible safety, to the traveling public on board our steamboats, does not seem to answer the end desired to the extent anticipated. Certainly not, if it was not violated in the recent cases of terrible disaster we have had to record. Navigation has seldom opened with a more saddening promise. Since the commencement of the present month, the loss of life and properly on board of steamboats has been most lamentable. Among the number of such occurrences, the Reindeer, while running from Louisville to St. Louis; the Caroline, from Memphis, and the John L. Avery, running from New-Orleans to Cincinnati, are the most serious. The Reindeer exploded her boiler, which killed and wounded between forty and fifty persons. The Caroline caught fire in the immediate vicinity of her boilers, was burned, and the loss of forty lives was the consequence. The John L. Avery sunk, and terminated the existence of from seventy-five to eighty of her passengers. About two hundred lives destroyed, and no one blamed.

“Such explosions as that of the Reindeer are so frequent, that we feel bound to believe negligence is the chief cause. She exploded a flue during the first revolution of her wheel, as she was leaving her dock at Cannelton. So did the New World, at her dock on the North River…So did her namesake, the Reindeer of the Hudson, as she was leaving her dock at Malden, spreading death and suffering among a majority of her passengers. And so have a large number of others.

“In the case of the Reindeer, on the Hudson River, it was claimed, and generally credited, that there was an imperfection in the iron of which her flue was constructed, which could not have been discovered by those who made it. But surely all the flues that explode or collapse are not thus imperfect, for that of the steamer to which we are now alluding, is the only one within our remembrance proven to have had a like defect. In the opinion of the most experienced engineers whose evidence has been taken on such occurrences, the time of starting from the dock is the most dangerous to those on board .steamers, from the fact that generally the opening of the furnace doors is all the precaution taken against a too great accumulation of steam in the boilers, while the boat is lying at intermediate docks. All the skill, experience and care of the engineer in charge, are required at such a time, and we have often been assured that if’ the engineer is attentive, the danger ceases to be greater than when the boat is on her course. In view of these opinions of men of experience, and of the frequency of exactly such occurrences as that to the Reindeer, is it not fair to presume that a large majority of the explosions and collapses which occur at the docks, are caused by the inattention of the person or persons in charge; and if so, does not humanity demand that some change in the management of the fires and boilers, at landings, should be made, by which the boat would always leave a landing with a lower pressure of steam than when she approaches it? We have but little experience in the management of steam boilers, but, judging from the statements of those who have, the belief that an imperative rule for such cases would prevent many a sad catastrophe, is strong within us.

“In the case of the steamer Caroline, it would seem that from the time the fire was discovered, until she was in flames, there was sufficient time for the adjustment of life-preservers, floats, &c., had they been on board as the law requires. But in the somewhat lengthy reports of the disaster that have been published, we have not seen the slightest allusion to the means of safety which should have been within the convenient reach of every person on board. The Pilot certainly acted a noble, self-sacrificing part, in standing and perishing at the wheel, for the purpose of running the burning boat ashore, but before Congress passed the safety law, a terrible example had been furnished, by the burning of the Henry Clay, of how little such means could be relied on for the preservation of passengers. Other effectual means of safety should have been at hand, and had they been, and had the officers in command called upon those on board to make use of them, instead of looking only to their own safety, it is hard to believe that so many would have perished. Concerning the steamer John L. Avery, the statements yet received are unsatisfactory. She is reported to have struck and gone down suddenly, and that near eighty persons perished. She struck at 3 o’clock. P.M.; and had all the preparations against loss of life from such an occurrence been in readiness, that always should be on board steamboats, is it not strange that one hundred out of the two hundred and fifty should have met a watery grave? There are many, too many like occurrences, which furnish ground for more than a suspicion that the law is not observed as it should be; and also, that there are points in it which might be improved.

“The consequences of carelessness in those who construct and manage our steamboats, are so terrible, that all that the law and its executors can do to prevent them should be done promptly and effectively. Many subjects of far less importance occupy much of the time of Congress; and in view of the alarming frequency of steam-boiler explosions and steamboat catastrophes, we venture to ask their attention to the subject as one requiring legislation.” (NY Daily-Times (Editorial). “Steamboat Burnings and Boiler Explosions,” March 22, 1854, p. 4, col. 3-4.)

March 22: “The Louisville Courier states that on the 13th inst. the steamer Reindeer running between that place and St Louis when bound down and after taking in coal at Cannelton (on the Ohio) collapsed a flue and both ends of the boiler were blown out with terrible effect. The steamer Europa was a few rods in advance, and immediately sent a yawl to pick up persons struggling in the water. Several were rescued, but five or six hats were floating on the river, whose owners’ heads were not in them. On board the boat, some six persons were found dead from the terrible scalding, and some thirty-five more were lying upon mattresses, many of whom were not expected to recover….

“A later dispatch states that twenty-two had been buried, and twenty-four others are so severely injured that little hopes are entertained of their recovery.

“The Reindeer had just been purchased to supply the vacancy made by the explosion of the Kate Kearney. This was her first trip on the line, and she was only two years old.

“Another account states that the Reindeer was commanded by Capt. Adams, and had been bargained for by the Alton and Chicago Railroad Company but for some reason had not been transferred. The boat was racing with the Pike, and the accident is attributed to carelessness.…” (Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “Steamboat Explosion,” March 22, 1854, p. 3, col. 4.)

March 23: “This terrible disaster has been the means of destroying at least forty persons, besides severely injuring many others. The circumstances attending this melancholy accident, as detailed by those on board, are about as follows:

“The Reindeer and Pike left Louisville on Monday within a short time of each other, on a race. Both were under full pressure of steam, and both from the commencement made extraordinary speed as they were at Hawesville, 130 miles below Louisville, at nine o’clock that night. The Reindeer passed the Pike once, and landed at Cannelton between nine and ten o’clock to take in a supply of coal, which occupied from a half to three-quarters of an hour, rounded out and had nearly or quite straightened, and at the first revolution of the engines both flues of the starboard boiler collapsed. The second engineer was on watch at the time, and had been overheard remarking that the Pike would be passed before daylight.

“An examination of the flues and boiler showed both to be of excellent iron. The other boilers remained undisturbed, and un-injured….

“Nearly all those on deck, both before and behind the boilers, were severely and dangerously scalded. The mate…was struck on the head by a piece of iron and instantly killed. The second engineer…was badly scalded…Thirty-five bodies lay extended in agony on the floor occupying the whole of the cabin….The total number killed was thirty-two, and eight or ten others are so severely injured that they cannot recover….” (Alton Weekly Courier, IL. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 23, 1854, p. 1, col. 3.)

March 25: “It is stated that, out of fifty-four persons on the deck of the Reindeer at the time her flue collapsed, forty six had died up to last Sunday evening. The remaining eight are in the Louisville Hospital, and some of them, it is feared, cannot recover. In proportion to the number of people on board the ill-fated steamer, this is probably the most fatal explosion that has yet taken place on the Western waters.” (Alton Daily Telegraph, IL. “The Reindeer Victims,” March 25, 1854, p. 3., col. 1.)

May 15: “The Inspectors of steamboats for the port of Louisville have made a lengthy report to the Surveyor, giving their views, as to the causes which led to the late unfortunate disaster to the steamer Reindeer. The testimony elicited during the investigation, proves that the boilers of the Reindeer were made of the best metal, and able to sustain a much greater amount of steam than is required by the law. The flues, also, were made of the best quality of iron, showing neither incrustation, nor thin places, as a cause why they should collapse under the pressure allowed. The inspectors accordingly report gross and culpable negligence in those who had the management of the boat, in allowing her to be so unevenly loaded with coal as to careen greatly to the larboard, in which position the collapse occurred. A more serious blame is attached to the acting Engineer, Frederick Ludwig, in neglecting to reduce the steam at the stopping of the boat below the work standard, and bringing down the fires. For the criminality, which resulted in the disaster, the Inspector’s think the Engineer, Ludwig, liable to a criminal prosecution. His license is withdrawn.” (Alton Daily Telegraph, IL. “The Reindeer Explosion – Report of Inspectors,” 5-15-1854, p. 2.)

Reindeer Fatalities From Sources Above

1. Allen, Ann OH
2. Allen, James OH
3. Allen, Margaret OH
4. Allen, Mary OH
5. Allen, Nancy OH
6. Baker, David Woods, 29 Altoona PA
7. Berge, Michael KY
8. Bodel, Cary Howard County, MO
9. Bolton, John Columbus, OH
10. Brown, Lawrence M. Eperidge, N.H.
11. Carey, Pierce OH
12. Comer, Isaac Scioto, OH
13. Comer, Patrick Matamoras, PA
14. Coyle [or Doyle], Catherine Pittsburgh. PA
15. Craley [or Crawley], Robert Pittsburgh, PA
16. Ferrier, Robert Canada
17. Gallagher, Patrick Pittsburgh, PA
18. Gest, Benjamin St. Louis, MO
19. Gibbinger, Mr. Louisville, KY
20. Hyatt, Samuel L. St. Louis, MO
21. Lucas, Thomas Italy
22. Ludwig, Frederick 2nd engineer Louisville, KY. Died later from injuries.
23. Lynch, Michael OH
24. McIntyre, Thomas Matamoras, OH
25. McNutt, A. IA
26. Merriman, Patrick OH
27. Mullen, Daniel Mate Louisville, KY. Struck on head by piece of iron.
28. Peak, Jordan OH
29. Pulvea, Jane St. Louis, MO
30. Purvis, Mrs. (sister of Mr. Robert Edmondson of Cannelton). Died from scalding later.
31. Richards, David KY
32. Snyder, Andrew OH
33. Snyder, Mary OH
34. Snyder, Rachael OH
35. Snyder, William OH
36. Stodelman, R. R. St. Louis, MO
37. Thomason, James L. KY
38. Thorn, William Frankfort, KY
39. Vrecanter, Signor Italy
40. Unidentified black boy, 14, crew member.

15 unidentified crew (some of whom could be listed above).

Sources

Alton Daily Telegraph, IL. “The Reindeer Explosion – Report of Inspectors,” 5-15-1854, p. 2, col. 2. At: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=116100754

Alton Daily Telegraph, IL. “The Reindeer Victims,” March 25, 1854, p. 3., col. 1. Accessed at: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=117898771

Alton Weekly Courier, IL. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 23, 1854, p. 1, col. 3. Accessed 10-22-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/alton-weekly-courier-mar-23-1854-p-1/

Board of [U.S.] Supervising Inspectors. “Report of Board of Supervising Inspectors of Steam-boats, Detroit, 10-10-1854, in: Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances, for the Year Ending June 30, 1854 (Senate Executive Document No. 2, 33d Congress, 2d Session). Washington, DC: Beverley Tucker, Senate Printer, 1854. Accessed 10-22-2020 at: https://www.google.com/books/edition/Report_of_the_Secretary_of_the_Treasury/A4LPAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=reindeer

Brooklyn Daily Eagle, NY. “Steamboat Disaster.” 3-16-1854, p. 2, col. 1. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/brooklyn-daily-eagle-mar-16-1854-p-2/

Cannelton Reporter, IN. “Terrible Steamboat Explosion! Sixty Persons Scalded! – Nearly the entire Number Dead!” 3-14-1854, p. 2, col. 4. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/cannelton-reporter-mar-18-1854-p-2/

Daily Pittsburgh Gazette, PA. “River News.” 3-20-1854, p. 3, col. 1. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/pittsburgh-daily-pittsburgh-gazette-mar-20-1854-p-3/

Farrow, Michael, Chairman of the Blair County [PA] Historical Society. Email dated 10-23-2022.

Fort Wayne Times, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster,” March 22, 1854, p. 2, col. 4. Accessed at: https://newspaperarchive.com

Gould, E. W. Fifty Years on the Mississippi; or, Gould’s History of River Navigation. St. Louis: Nixon-Jones Printing Co., 1889, 750 pages. Digitized by Google. Accessed 2008 at: http://books.google.com/books?id=udyywXOVBvsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Lebanon Post, KY. “Another Steamboat Disaster!!” 3-22-1854, p. 2, col. 5. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/lebanon-post-mar-22-1854-p-2/

Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, WI. “Explosion of the Reindeer,” 3-20-1854, p. 2, col. 3. Accessed at: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=35075916

New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. 3-16-1854, p. 2, col. 2. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/new-albany-daily-ledger-mar-16-1854-p-2/

New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “Terrible Disaster. Explosion of the Reindeer.” 3-15-1854, p. 2, col. 1. Accessed 10-22-2020: https://newspaperarchive.com/new-albany-daily-ledger-mar-15-1854-p-2/

New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “The Reindeer Disaster.” 3-17-1854, p. 2, col. 2. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/new-albany-daily-ledger-mar-17-1854-p-2/

New Albany Daily Ledger, IN. “The steamer Reindeer…” 3-21-1854, p. 2, col. 1. Accessed 10-23-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/new-albany-daily-ledger-mar-21-1854-p-2/

New York Daily Times. “Destruction of the Reindeer.” 3-20-1854, p. 1, col. 6. Accessed 10-22-2020 at: https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1854/03/20/issue.html

New York Daily-Times. “Steamboat Burnings and Boiler Explosions (Editorial),” March 22, 1854, p. 4, col. 3-4. Accessed 10-22-2020 at: https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1854/03/22/76433708.html?pageNumber=4

New York Daily-Times. “The Explosion of the Steamer Reindeer,” March 17, 1854, p. 4. Accessed at: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=2827641

Way, Frederick Jr. (Author and Compiler), Joseph W. Rutter (contributor). Way’s Packet Directory, 1848-1994: Passenger Steamboats of the Mississippi River System Since the Advent of Photography in Mid-Continent America (Revised). Athens OH: Ohio University Press, 1999.

Weekly Wisconsin, Milwaukee. “Steamboat Explosion,” March 22, 1854, p. 3, col. 4. Accessed at: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=34931596