1919 — July 19-23, Race Riots, Washington, DC — 6

Compiled by B. Wayne Blanchard for addition to the website Deadliest American Disasters and Large-Loss-of-Life Events: https://www.usdeadlyevents.com/

–9-40 Perl, Peter. “Nation’s Capital Held at Mercy of the Mob.” Washington Post, 7-16-1989.
— 39 Perl. “Race Riot of 1919 Gave Glimpse of Future Struggles.” Washington Post, 3-1-1999, A1.
–4-38 Zinn Education Project. “July 19, 1919: White Mobs in Uniform Attack African Americans…” 2020.
— 15 Wikipedia. “Washington race riot of 1919.” 6-21-2020 edit.
— 6 Abernathy. “The Washington Race War of July, 1919.” Maryland Historical Mag., Dec 1963, p. 322.
— 6 Blanchard tally from daily breakouts below.*
— 6 Sherwood. Black Sailor, White Navy: Racial Unrest in the Fleet… 2007, p. 6.
— 6 United Press. “Washington Race Riot Has Subsided.” Urbana Daily Courier, IL, 7-24-1919, 1.

July 19 (0) Abernathy. “The Washington Race War of July, 1919.” [MD] Hist. Mag., Dec 1963, 316-17.
July 20 (0) Abernathy. “The Washington Race War of July, 1919.” [MD] Hist. Mag., Dec 1963, 317.
July 21 (4). UP. “Race War Turns Capital into Armed Camp.” Daily Gazette, IL. 7-22-1919, 1.
–1 Detective Sergeant Harry Wilson; white; killed by black woman.
–1 Kenneth Crall, white; part of mob chasing William Laney (black), who shot into mob.
–1 Randall Neal; black; reportedly shot by Marines in a passing car.
–1 Thomas Armstrong; black.
— Jane Gore. (Not in UP article. In Wikipedia, stating she was “shot dead.”
— White casualties in Navy Hosp. “shot randomly” “killing several.” (Did not happen.)
July 22 (1). Washington Times. “Haan to Keep Heavy Guard Here.” 7-23-1919, p. 1.
–1 Isaac B. Halbfinger, white Home Defense Officer; shot by black; searching for weapons.
July 23 (1). Marine pvt. Louis Havlicek, white, dies; shot by Treasury Dept. guard Walker, black.

*Blanchard note: While we show sources which claim 9, 15 or 38-40 deaths, we find no corroboration at all, and thus do not use. We have not only word-searched through the four Washington, DC newspapers we have access through via NewspaperArchive.com, through Jan 1920, to look for deaths from injuries sustained in the rioting, but expanded that search to a nationwide newspaper search and find no mention of such deaths. Perhaps there were deaths from injuries which our search parameters did not capture. Thus, if any reader knows of a source detailing any other death or deaths than the six we and others have noted, we invite contact via our website.

Narrative Information

Abernathy on environment prior to July 19: “….In late June and early July, several Negro assaults on white women provided the capital’s newspapers with sensational headlines for weeks. The Washington Herald ran front page stories on ‘crimes against women’ and ‘Negro fiends’ for thirteen of the first seventeen days of July. The Times carried fewer stories but surpassed the Herald in sensationalism. The Post and Evening Star, commonly acknowledged to be the most sober of Washington newspapers, published articles on Negro crime almost daily. Most of the incidents reported were exaggerated; others – recited to police or reporters by frightened and excited women – proved to be completely groundless upon investigation. Records of the Washington Police Department, furnished later by its chief, showed three attempted assaults and once case of rape in the District of Columbia for the month preceding July 19. One man – who, ironically, had been apprehended before the nineteenth – was suspected of three of the four assaults.” (Abernathy, Lloyd M. “The Washington Race War of July, 1919.” Maryland Historical Magazine, Vol. 58, No. 4, December 1963, p. 313.)

Newspapers

July 20: “A policeman was shot and seriously injured, two negroes were beaten with clubs, and a number of others were roughly handled early today, when more than 200 soldiers, sailors and marines invaded southwest Washington bent on lynching a negro suspected of attacking Mrs. Elsie Stephnick, wife of John Stephnick, of the navy aviation department, as she was on her way home from the Bureau of Printing and Engraving shortly after 10 o’clock Friday night [July 18].

“A race riot was threatened and was only avoided by the prompt arrival of police reserves and a detail of marines from the Marine Barracks and soldiers from Potomac Park, who swooped down on the mob, which dispersed shortly after their arrival.

“The policeman shot is Frank McGrath, of Fourth precinct police station. McGrath, accompanied by Policeman R. J. Cox, also of the Fourth precinct, was investigating the riot in Four-and-a-half street about 2 o’clock, when three negroes were stopped, suspected of having participated in the disturbance.
Expected To Recover.

“Two of the negroes fled, and the third, whose identity is unknown to the police, fired at Policeman Cox. The bullet whizzed past the policeman’s head, and the negro then fired at McGrath. McGrath was shot in the left breast, and today hi is at the Emergency Hospital. He is expected to recover. Cox returned fire on the negro, who also fled after he had shot McGrath.

“Ten arrests were made by the police as a result of the disturbance. Two of those taken into custody are Private E. H. Moore, stationed at Bolling Field, from whom a section of lead pipe was taken and Eugene Paul Shafer, a petty officer in the naval reserve flying corps, stationed at the air station at Anacostia.

“The others arrested are negroes, including: Adolph Fisher, Ellsworth Kelly, James Winefield, Clarence Wilson, Henry Thornton, Zachariah Jackson, Arthur Lee, and William Redman. They are held for investigation.
Marines and Sailors Start.

“The moving spirits in the march to the southwest were several sailors and marines who were gathered in the vicinity of Seventh street and Pennsylvania avenue northwest near midnight. Word had been received that two negroes, suspected by the police of the attack made on Mrs. Stephnick, had been taken into custody and later released. The military men started in search of the men, determined to take the law in their own hands.

“Reaching C street, between Twelfth and Thirteenth streets southwest, the soldiers, sailors, and marines, the mob being augmented by many citizens as they proceeded along the streets, attacked George Montgomery, colored, who lives in that neighborhood.

Beaten With Clubs.

“He was badly beaten with clubs and sticks and it was necessary that he be taken to the Emergency Hospital for treatment. The mob then encountered Charles Liston Ralls and his wife, of 1209 Carlin court. Ralls was struck several times, his mouth being cut from a blow with a stick. The wife also was struck. When Ralls and his wife reached their home they barricaded the doors and windows and the mob is alleged to have attempted to break in, but by this time a riot call had been sent from police headquarters by Detective Sergeant Guy C. Burlingame, night inspector of detectives, and police, marines, and soldiers put in their appearance and dispersed the mob.

Every Negro Questioned.

“Every negro encountered by the mob was stopped and questioned, and it is said that had it not been for the prompt arrival of the police and military forces a riot of serious proportions would have taken place.

“It was during the midst of the excitement in southwest Washington that Detective James Manning and William Murphy, of the Baltimore police department, were putting Forest Eaglan, negro caddy, through a grueling examination at the Seventh precinct police station. Eaglan was arrested by Sheriff William F. Aud, of Montgomery county, as a suspect in connection with the brutal assault made on July 5 on Miss Mary Saunders, a War Department employee, who lives at Somerset Heights, Montgomery county. Sheriff Aud is confident that Eaglan knows more about the assault on Miss Saunders than he has told. Detective Sergeants Kelly, Scrivener, and Sweeney, of the Washington Police Department, who have questioned the negro, assert they believe him innocent, making this declaration as the result of their having run out an alibi the negro has given as to his movements and whereabouts on the day Miss Saunders was attacked.

Maryland Sheriff Disagrees.

“Not agreeing with the Washington detectives, Sheriff Aud asked the police commissioners of Baltimore to detail Detectives Murphy and Manning from that city to the case. Without mincing any words, Sheriff Aud has declared he does not feel he is receiving consistent cooperation from the Washington Police Department, and for this reason he wired the Baltimore authorities to detail Maryland detectives to assist him in unraveling the identity of the negro assailant of Miss Saunders. Sheriff Aud today will confer with States Attorney Albert M. Boule, of Montgomery county, to arrange to have Eaglan extradited to Rockville. ‘The fear the Washington police have that Eaglan will be lynched if brought to Rockville is a fallacy,’ said Sheriff Aud. ‘While Eaglan has not been proven guilty, we have a strong case against him. The people in Montgomery will let the law take its course, but regardless of the fears of the Washington police, Eaglan is our prisoner, and he should be delivered to us.’

“Inspector Clifford L. Grant, Chief of Detectives, has said he will not deliver the prisoner to the Montgomery county authorities unless Governor Harrington of Maryland signs papers for his extradition.

“When questioned early this morning, Eaglan again persisted in declaring his innocence of any connection with the crime.” (Washington Times, DC. “Policeman Is Shot During Riot In S.W.” 7-20-1919, p. 1.)

July 20: “More than 200 service men in uniform last night were involved in one of the most serious race riots Southwest Washington has seen in moths. Four men were sent to the hospital, two with bullet wounds….” (Washington Herald, DC. “Two Shot; 4 Hurt in D.C. Race Riots.” 7-20-1919, p. 1.)

July 20: “Have you a police whistle? It has been suggested by a number of readers of The Times that Washington women carry one in their purses. Major Raymond W. Pullman, Superintendent of Police, supplies all policewomen with whistles to be used in emergencies.

“With the outbreak of outrages on Washington women in the suburbs, it has been stated that women could frighten off an assailant, if attacked, by retaining sufficient presence of mind to blow a police whistle.

“Most women when passing through the streets feel safe in the theory that policemen are always nearby. But this is not always the case. The suggestion made is that a woman carrying a police whistle in her handbag or purse could use it effectively should she be attacked, or have suspicious ideas about a negro or anyone else who might be bent on attacking her.

“Not only are policewomen protected with police whistles, but with revolvers which they carry in their handbags.

“With most of the women of the suburbs of Washington practically terror-stricken because of the brutal attacks made on six women within a month by negroes, readers of The Times believe it would be well for women who must use unfrequented byways and roads, to carry police whistles, so they could summon police aid, if not frighten off a would-be assailant.” (Washington Times, DC. “Suggest District Women Carry Police Whistles.” 7-20-1919, p. 1.)

July 21: “Washington streets last night furnished the stage for as bitter race rioting as the District has seen in years. Wholesale attacks upon negroes were not confined to the Southwest section, which was virtually under martial law, but unorganized mobs led assaults that had Pennsylvania Avenue and Seventh street northwest in a continual turmoil until long after midnight. Eight negroes were badly beaten and taken to Emergency Hospital for treatment. Scores of other negroes were attacked but escaped with minor injuries.

Six Arrests Made.

“Six men are locked up at No. 1 police station charged with assaults and a number of colored men were taken to the precinct headquarters as a matter of protection.

“Other negroes managed to flee toward their homes after being severely beaten.

“There was a generous sprinkling of uniformed soldiers and sailors in the throngs bent upon wreaking vengeance on every colored man for the recent series of assaults upon white women. Many civilians, defiant of the police, were openly advocating lynching.

“The first inkling that the heavy military details and extra policemen assigned to the Southwest section of the city had not quelled the race feeling came at 9 o’clock last night when a riot call was sent in from Ninth street and Pennsylvania avenue.

Negro Badly Beaten.

“At that point a colored man was attacked by a mob of soldiers and civilians and severely beaten. When the police finally got to the scene and corralled the ringleaders of the trouble, they were followed to No. 1 Police Station by a huge crowd, who demanded that the prisoners be released.

“This crowd wandered back to Seventh street after the first outbreak, and proceeded to attack every colored man who ventured in the vicinity of Pennsylvania avenue.

“A detail of police numbering more than thirty men could not disperse the crowd, and colored men leaving cars at Pennsylvania avenue and Seventh street were attacked without warning.

Aged Man Pleads for Mercy.

“When they started to run they were immediately followed by a crowd, hooting and shouting. ‘Keep them where they belong.’ One elderly colored man fell on his knees in a doorway near D street and pleaded with a group menacing him to let him alone. A military detail escorted him to a Pennsylvania avenue car that carried him away from the troublous scene.

“The mob became so congested at one time in Seventh street that street car traffic was blocked, and as colored men started to leave them and walk they were attacked.

Extra Police Called Out.

“With extra details of police rushed to the scene, the crowds started to disperse further up Pennsylvania avenue. They attacked a colored man at thirteenth street and Pennsylvania avenue and in a few moments he was unconscious on the street to be later removed by a Casualty Hospital ambulance.

“At midnight the greater part of the mob had congregated at Fifteenth street and Pennsylvania with the police making every effort to disperse them. Many were taken to the station house to be later released after a warning to keep the peace.” (Washington Herald, DC. “Score of Negroes Hurt as Race Riot Spreads; Police Make 6 Arrests.” 7-21-1919, p. 1.)

July 21: “Immediate and drastic action by Congress and the military authorities must be taken to end the crime wave which is sweeping over the National Capital, was the opinion express last night by Vice President Marshall, members of Congress, representative business men, labor leaders, clergymen and prominent women. The wave of crime, including criminal assaults upon women, murders, hold-ups and robberies, precipitating a race riot Saturday night [19th] in southwest Washington, has reached such alarming proportions that government officials and citizens demand that the police force be augmented by more military police until an adequate District force is provided by Congress. Such action is demanded in view of the fact that the police department is meeting with little success in apprehending the criminals.

“Senator Sherman, of Illinois, chairman of the Senate District committee, declared last night that the outrages in Washington continue with such alarming frequency that measures to check them should be taken before a serious outbreak occurred. He said that the Senate District committee would meet at 11 o’clock this morning and would be glad to receive any recommendations from the commissioners and Maj. Pullman, looking up a remedy for the situation. Senator Sherman said he had no criticism to make of the police force, but declared that it was not a question of censure, but one of public safety. He intimated that serious rioting might occur if the situation was not met at once.

“Vice President Marshall declared last night the police force could not be enlarged until Congress appropriated money to give the men salaries ‘commensurate with the high cost of living in this city.’ Although some of the citizens interviewed last night by representatives of The Washington Post criticized the inefficiency of the police department, others highly commended it for trying to cope with the situation….” (Washington Post. “Denouncing Wave of Crime Here, Officials, Ministers and Others Declare Police Are Too Few.” 7-21-1919, p. 2.)

July 22: “(United Press Leased Wire.) Washington, July 22. – Additional reinforcements will be rushed to Washington today in an effort to control rioting between white men and negroes, which has lasted three nights. In street fighting last night four persons were killed, two seriously injured and thirty others wounded and attended at hospitals. Scores of others were hurt but hobbled or ere assisted by friends from the scenes of the clashes.

Mobs Beyond Control.

“Four hundred soldiers and marines, reinforcing the 700 police of the national capital, were unable to cope with the mobs. While they were fighting rioters at one place, another outbreak would be reported from a quarter of the city blocks distant.

“The negroes, better armed than the whites, appeared to have the best of several encounters. Early this morning, automobiles, crowded with yelling blacks, many of them armed, were dashing about streets in the residential parts of town, defying the whites to ‘come on.’

“The coming of daylight and a terrific thunder storm which deluged the city, put an end to the fighting. Bur police heads fear it will be resumed tonight.

Wants Martial Law.

“A resolution asking President Wilson to proclaim martial law in the District of Columbia on account of continued rioting between whites and negroes was introduced today in the house by Representative Emerson of Ohio.

“Senator Harrison, of Mississippi, introduced a bill to require the District of Columbia traction companies to operate separate cars for whites and negroes.

“Representative Clark of Florida asked that a special house committee be named to investigate the race riots. His resolution asked what police were doing to stop the disorders which have gripped the national capital for three nights, resulting in four deaths and in scores of injured. He said it was the ‘solemn duty of the federal government to take immediate action’ to restore order.

“Coincident with congressional demands for action, Washington police were trying to prevent sale of firearms and ammunition in Maryland Virginia as well as in the District of Columbia. Requests to prevent such sales, either to whites or negroes, went out to Baltimore, Alexandria, Va., Hyattsville, Md., and other nearby communities. Alexandria police reported after receiving the request that both whites and negroes were already there in large numbers attempting to make purchases.

“The dead reported this morning were Detective Sergeant Harry Wilson, Kenneth Crall, Randall Neal and Thomas Armstrong. The two latter are negroes. Detective sergeant B. W. Thompson and Private Albert Luck of the marines were believed in a dying condition. Of the other casualties five were policemen.
May Become Armed Camp.

“Major Pullman, chief of the Washington police, conferred with military authorities today and it was expected that as a result of this conference tonight would see the national capital practically an armed camp. ‘There will be no parleying with the elements of disorder,’ said Pullman. ‘All the power of the federal government is behind the police department and these combined forces will see to it that order is restored.’

“Two hundred persons were under arrest today, according to police estimates.

“The worst outbreak occurred in the early evening at seventh and T streets, in the negro quarter. A mob of 1,000 negroes started to march toward the residences of the whites.

Fight Lasted An Hour.

“Police and soldiers confronted them. They refused to disperse and the troops charged, backed by the police. Many of the rioters started shooting with revolvers. The fight lasted half an hour, during which negro women hurled bottles and other missiles from the windows and roofs of houses.

“Several large mobs of whites formed in the downtown district and tried to invade the black belt, but a cordon of cavalry was thrown around that section after midnight.

“Early today about 1,000 white men marched out Pennsylvania avenue, past the white house and headed for a negro quarter in that direction. Police reserves turned them back after a short struggle.

Guerrilla Warfare.

“Aside from the main clash between armed mobs or between troops, police and crowds of whites and negroes, there was almost continuous guerrilla warfare. Detective Sergeant Wilson was killed by a negress as he tried to force his way into her house in pursuit of a rioter.

“Negroes in an automobile seriously wounded Patrolman Classman, opening fire on him as they rushed past. This occurred in the shopping district.

“A negro, said to have been a government watchman, dashed out of the treasury building and shot Private Luck, of the marine corps, seriously wounding him.

Fired From Street Car.

“As a street car was going at good speed down Pennsylvania avenue, near the capitol, a negro fired several shots from it, hitting William H. Thomas.

“A cavalryman was shot off his horse on Massachusetts avenue near Fourth, from ambush.

“A negro attacked Sergeant Murphy, marine provost guard, on a down town street corner, and shot him in the jaw.

“This morning the troops and police, haggard and disheveled, sought a little sleep while their chiefs conferred. The felling was obviously much more tense than it has been at any time since the rioting started Saturday night [19th].” (United Press. “Race War Turns Capital Into Armed Camp.” Daily Gazette, IL. 7-22-1919, p. 1.)

July 22: “….L. A. Hill, a negro, was taken to Freedman’s Hospital suffering from a fractured skull inflicted by a marine when he attempted to rush a marine guard on Fourth street near M northwest. He is not expected to live.

“Robert Broadus, a negro, living at 910 E street southwest, was taken to Emergency Hospital shortly after 10 o’clock. He was shot through the lung with a .45 caliber revolver by a member of the provost guard at Third and K streets southwest when a gang of negroes tried to rush the provost guard that was patrolling that section of the city. He was also suffering from a broken ja. The police detail at the hospital said the soldier who fired the shot was placed under arrest pending an investigation of the shooting.

“….Robert Buckner, colored, living at 1603 Twelfth street northwest, was taken to Casualty Hospital shortly before 11 o’clock tonight suffering from a laceration of the back. His condition is reported serious. A crowd of white men is said to have attacked him.

“….Shots fired by a negro from the rear end of a Seventh street car near Pennsylvania avenue resulted in the injury of two whites, Albert Finlayson, 31 years old, of 629 Fourth street northeast, and Ernest Albert Giovanetti, a boy of thirteen years, living at 470 K street northwest, shortly before 11 o’clock. The negro who fired was George Gentry, of 1920 Twelfth street northwest, and he was shot five times by Detective Scrivener before he was captured. All three were sent to Emergency Hospital. Gentry’s condition is serious. Finlayson was shot through the hip, and the boy Giovanetti was shot in the foot.” (Washington Times. “Flash News briefs Detain Stirring Scenes From Every Center of Rioting in City.” 7-22-1919, p. 3.)

July 23: “The hotspurs of race rioting squelched, Washington believes its reign of terror is at an end. The city is cool today. It is confident that mob passions are in leash. Last night the streets were silent almost deserted by trouble-makers. The murder that broke the night’s peace was not on the fringe of a gang fight, but was a feather-brained negro’s act, and does not portend any recurrence of trouble tonight.

“Confidence that the Capital has regained its poise does not mean, however, that there will be any relaxation of the patrolling of the streets by the guard of soldiers, sailors, and marines who did such efficient work last night.
To Take No Chances.

“The District Commissioners urge that all citizens observe the precautions as were taken last night – to keep off the streets as far as possible, to stay at home on a ‘safety first’ principle.

“The police this morning arrested a suspect for the murder of Isaac B. Halbfinger, the Home Defense Leaguer, who was shot through the heart at the corner of Ninth and M streets last night while attempting to search a negro for concealed weapons. He is ‘Buck” Jackson, a negro thirty-three years old, 1704 Seaton street northwest.

Belmont May Live.

“Benjamin Belmont, 603 O street northwest, another Home Defense League officer, who was with Halbfinger when the murder took place and who also was shot, lies in a serious condition at Emergency Hospital, but physicians are hopeful that the wound would not prove fatal. Halbfinger died instantly, shot in the heart. Belmont was shot in the abdomen.

“It is probable that the heavy guard of Federal troops on the Washington streets will be continued tonight, and perhaps for several nights longer. Officials this morning had reached no decision on this point, but it is clear that they will not relax vigilance until they are certain that the danger is over….”(Washington Times. “Haan to Keep Heavy Guard Here. Riot Spirit is on the Wane in Washington Today.” 7-23-1919, p. 1.”)

July 24: “The 2,000 Federal troops brought to the Capital to check race rioting will be held here tonight to assist the police authorities in guarding against further outbreaks, although the authorities are optimistic that there will be none….

“Last night passed off with practically no disorder, and General Haan said today the reign of terror was at an end and that ‘no further trouble was looked for.’….

“The list of the dead from the rioting has been brought up to six. Louis Havlicek, private, headquarters, paymaster department of the marine corps, died late yesterday afternoon from a bullet would in his neck at the Naval Hospital. He was shot during a disturbance on Pennsylvania avenue, just east of Fifteenth street, about 11 o’clock Monday night. Paralysis developed soon after he had been wounded. Micajah Theodore Walker, colored, of 607 Morton street, a watchman in the Treasury Department, is held in custody charged with the shooting. He has admitted discharging his revolver during the disturbance, according to the police, but claims to have been assaulted. Walker was riding a motorcycle when he ran into a riot….” (Washington Times. “2,000 Troops Remain Here to Keep Riot Spirit Down.” 7-24-1919, p. 1.)

Sources Cited

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ESRI. Arcgis.com. Washington DC Race Riot 1919. “Navy Hospital” photograph (no. 13). Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapTour/index.html?appid=0bbfcb999c8443c7bece12c7325c27ea

Evening Star, Washington, DC. “Riot Victim Held.” 9-11-1919. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/tags/riot/?ndt=bd&pd=23&pm=7&py=1919&pe=31&pem=12&pey=1920&pep=george%20gentry&ob=1&pr=10&psb=dateasc/

Krugler, David F. 1919, The Year of Racial Violence: How African Americans Fought Back. NY: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Google preview accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://books.google.com/books?id=B2aTBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&vq=%25252522elsie%25252520stephnick%25252522#v=onepage&q&f=false

McWhirter, Cameron. Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: A John Macrae Book, Henry Holt and Company, 2011.

Officer Down Memorial Page. “Home Defense Officer Isaac B. Halbfinger.” Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.odmp.org/officer/19715-home-defense-officer-isaac-b-halbfinger

Perl, Peter. “Race Riot of 1919 Gave glimpse of Future Struggles. Washington Post, 3-1-1999, A1. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/raceriot0301.htm?noredirect=on

Perl, Peter. “Nation’s Capital Held at Mercy of the Mob.” Washington Post, 7-16-1989. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/magazine/1989/07/16/nations-capital-held-at-mercy-of-the-mob/89f8f5bc-7e32-43aa-8479-d1213768e769/

Perl, Peter. “Race Riot of 1919 Gave Glimpse of Future Struggles.” Washington Post, 3-1-1999, A1. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/raceriot0301.htm?noredirect=on

Sauer, Patrick. “One Hundred Years Ago, a Four-Day Race Riot Engulfed Washington, D.C.” Smithsonianmag.com, 7-17-2019. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/one-hundred-years-ago-four-day-race-riot-engulfed-washington-dc-180972666/

Schaffer, Michael. “Lost Riot.” Washington City Paper, 4-3-1998. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/news/article/13015176/lost-riot

Sherwood, John Darrell. Chapter 1, “The Black Sailor” in: Black Sailor, White Navy: Racial Unrest in the Fleet During the Vietnam War Era. New York and London: New York University Press, 2007. Google preview accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://books.google.com/books?id=A9AVCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

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United Press. “Washington Race Riot Has Subsided.” Urbana Daily Courier, IL, 7-24-1919, 1. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/urbana-daily-courier-jul-24-1919-p-1/

Washington Herald, DC. “Score of Negroes Hurt as Race Riot Spreads; Police Make 6 Arrests.” 7-21-1919, p. 1. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/the-washington-herald-jul-21-1919-p-1/

Washington Herald, DC. “Two Shot; 4 Hurt in D.C. Race Riots.” 7-20-1919, p. 1. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/the-washington-herald-jul-20-1919-p-1/

Washington Post. “Denouncing Wave of Crime Here, Officials, Ministers and Others Declare Police Are Too Few.” 7-21-1919, p. 2. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-post-jul-21-1919-p-2/

Washington Times. “2,000 Troops Remain Here to Keep Riot Spirit Down.” 7-24-1919, p. 1. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-24-1919-p-1/

Washington Times. “Flash News briefs Detain Stirring Scenes From Every Center of Rioting in City.” 7-22-1919, p. 3. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-22-1919-p-3/

Washington Times. “Haan to Keep Heavy Guard Here. Riot Spirit is on the Wane in Washington Today.” 7-23-1919, p. 1. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-23-1919-p-1/

Washington Times. “Jury Defers Fixing Riot Death Blame.” 7-24-1919, p. 2. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-24-1919-p-2/

Washington Times. “Marines Who Fought Overseas Defied Shots To Reinforce Policemen.” 7-22-1919, p. 3. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-22-1919-p-3/

Washington Times, DC. “Policeman Is Shot During Riot In S.W.” 7-20-1919, p. 1. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-20-1919-p-13/

Washington Times, DC. “Reopen Inquest of Victim of Riots.” 7-28-1919, p. 2. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-28-1919-p-2/

Washington Times. “Show Window Which Was Target of Armed Negro on Street Car.” 7-23-1919, p. 2. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-23-1919-p-2/

Washington Times, DC. “Suggest District Women Carry Police Whistles.” 7-20-1919, p. 1. Accessed 6-30-2020 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/washington-times-jul-20-1919-p-13/

Wikipedia. “Washington race riot of 1919.” 6-21-2020.

Zinn Education Project (Teaching People’s History). “This Day in History. July 19, 1919: White Mobs in Uniform Attack African Americans – Who Fight Back – in Washington, D.C.” 2020. Accessed 7-1-2020 at: https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/red-summer-dc/