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20th Century

1993 — Sep 22, Fog, Barge hits bridge, Amtrak train derails into water/fire, ~Mobile AL-47

lornajarrettblanchard September 22, 1993

— 47 Drabek, Thomas E. The Human Side of Disaster. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010, 33.

— 47 History.com. This Day in History, Disaster, September 22, 1993. Train Derails in AL…

— 47 NTSB. Railroad-Marine AR: Derailment…Amtrak Train No. 2…CSTX Big Bayou…, 1994

— 47 Trainweb. “Amtrak Big Bayou, Alabama Derailment 09/22/93.”

— 47 USFA. The Derailment of the Sunset Limited, Big Bayou Canot, Alabama, Sept. 22, 1993.

— 47 Wikipedia. “List of Rail Accidents (1950-1999).”

Narrative Information

History.com: “An Amtrak train headed to Miami derails near Mobile, Alabama, killing 47 people on this day in 1993. The accident, the deadliest in Amtrak’s history, was caused by a negligent towboat operator and foggy conditions.

“The Sunset Limited train travels from Los Angeles through Texas to New Orleans before arriving in Miami, Florida. It is known for carrying older people who prefer not to make the trip by air or car. In the very early morning hours of September 22, the train was traveling through Alabama. Three locomotives pulling eight cars left Mobile at 1:30 a.m. heading toward Birmingham across a swampy area.

“Meanwhile, the Mauvilla, a towboat operated by the Warrior and Gulf Navigation Company, was pulling six barges of coal and wood through the Alabama marshes. Andrew Stabler, the captain, was sleeping as the towboat and barges made their way up the Mobile River. Willie Odeon, another employee of Warrior and Gulf, was driving the boat, but did not know how to use the radar system. The boat had no compass or nautical charts to assist in navigation on the foggy night and, without realizing it, Odeon turned into the Big Bayou Canot, an area where barges are prohibited.

“At 2:45 a.m., the Mauvilla struck a rail bridge. The bridge was only seven to 12 feet above the water (depending on the tides) and was in place so that trains could pass through the swamps. When the boat collided with the bridge, it knocked the tracks out of alignment by three feet. Several minutes later, the Sunset Limited came down the tracks at 70 miles per hour, hit the misplaced tracks and derailed. The three locomotives and the first four cars of the train plunged into the water.

“The crew of the Mauvilla did not make a rescue call until 3:08 a.m., but did manage to pull seven survivors out of the swamp. Those who did not drown were put in even more danger when a fire broke out. Two of the disaster’s 47 victims died from burns. The Coast Guard did not arrive on the scene until 4:25 a.m., and it was another hour before the first helicopter arrived to assist in the rescue efforts.

“The crew of the Mauvilla was severely criticized for their actions but escaped criminal liability.” (History.com. This Day in History, Disaster, Sep 22, 1993. Train Derails in Alabama Swamp.”)

NTSB: “Synopsis

“On September 22, 1993, about 2:45 a.m., barges that were being pushed by the towboat MAUVILLA in dense fog struck and displaced the Big Bayou Canot railroad bridge near Mobile, Alabama. About 2:53 a.m., National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak) train 2, the Sunset Limited, en route from Los Angeles, California to Miami, Florida, with 220 persons on board, struck the displaced bridge and derailed. The three locomotive units, the baggage and dormitory cars, and two of the six passenger cars fell into the water. The fuel tanks on the locomotive units ruptured, and the locomotive units and the baggage and dormitory cars caught fire. Forty-two passengers and 5 crewmembers were killed; 103 passengers were injured. The towboat’s four crewmembers were not injured.

“The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable causes of Amtrak train 2’s derailment were the displacement of the Big Bayou Canot railroad bridge when it was struck by the MAUVILLA and tow as a result of the MAUVILLA’s pilot becoming lost and disoriented in the dense fog because of (1) the pilot’s lack of radar navigation competency; (2) Warrior & Gulf Navigation Company’s failure to ensure that its pilot was competent to use radar to navigate his tow during periods of reduced visibility; and (3) the U.S. Coast Guard’s failure to establish higher standards for inland towing vessel operator licensing. Contributing to the accident was the lack of a national risk assessment program to determine bridge vulnerability to marine vessel collision.

“Safety issues discussed in the accident report include towboat operator training and evaluation, bridge risk assessment, bridge identification, emergency response and evacuation procedures, and event recorder crashworthiness.

“The Safety Board makes recommendations addressing these issues to the U.S. Department of Transportation; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; the U.S. Coast Guard; Amtrak; the Federal Emergency Management Agency; The American Waterways Operators, Inc.; the Warrior & Gulf Navigation Company; the Association of American Railroads; and the American Short Line Railroad Association.

“The Safety board concludes that all bridges vulnerable to impact by commercial marine traffic should be required to have appropriate markings so that they can be identified promptly from land and water in the event of an accident or other emergency. The Safety Board believes that the Coast Guard should require such markings and periodically publish a list of them as part of a national bridge register. Such an inventory should be available to emergency response organizations and, following publication, should be included on navigation charts.

“RECOMMENDATIONS

“As a result of its investigation of this accident, the National Transportation Safety Board makes the following recommendations:

“to the U.S. Department of Transportation:

“Convene an intermodal task force that includes the Coast Guard, the Federal Railroad Administration, the Federal Highway Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to develop a standard methodology for determining the vulnerability of the Nation’s highway and railroad bridges to collisions from marine vessels, to formulate a ranking system for identifying bridges at greatest risk, and to provide guidance on the effectiveness and appropriateness of protective measures. (Class II, Priority Action) (I-94-3)

“Require that the Federal Railroad Administration and the Federal Highway Administration, for their respective modes, use the methodology developed by the intermodal task force to carry out a national risk assessment program for the Nation’s railroad and highway bridges. (Class II, Priority Action) (1-94-4)

“Require the modal operating administrations to develop and disseminate bulletins, notices, circulars, and other documents that call attention to the need for an employee reporting procedure concerning use of medication (over-the-counter and prescription) while on duty and that urge the transportation industry to develop and implement informational and educational programs related to this subject. (Class II, Priority Action) (1-94-5)

“Consider the use of RACONS, radar reflectors, and other devices to make bridges more identifiable on radar. (Class II, Priority Action) (I-94-6)

“to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:

“Cooperate with the U.S. Department of Transportation in developing a standard methodology for determining the vulnerability of the Nation’s highway and railroad bridges to collisions from marine vessels, formulating a ranking system to identify bridges at greatest risk, and providing guidance on the effectiveness and appropriateness of protective measures. (Class II, Priority Action) (I-94-7)

“Promote, in cooperation with the U.S. Coast Guard, the development and application of low-cost electronic charting navigation devices for inland rivers. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-30)

“to the U.S. Coast Guard:

“Amend 46 CFR 4 and 16 to specify the time limits, not to exceed 8 hours, within which employers must conduct postaccident alcohol testing. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-31)

“In consultation with the inland towing industry, develop radar training course curricula standards for river towboat operations that emphasize navigational use of radar on rivers and inland waters. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-32)

“Upgrade licensing standards to require that persons licensed as Operators of Uninspected Towing Vessels hold valid river-inland waters radar observer certification if they stand navigation watch on radar-equipped towing vessels and to require that employers provide more specific evidence of training. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-33)

“Require that all uninspected towing vessels carry appropriate navigational devices, including charts, in the wheelhouse. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-34)

“Promote, in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the development and application of low-cost electronic charting navigation devices for inland rivers. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-35)

“Require that radar be installed on board all uninspected towing vessels except those that operate within very limited areas. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-36)

“Require that all bridges vulnerable to impact by commercial marine traffic bear unique, readily visible markings so that waterway and bridge users are better able to identify bridges involved in an accident when they report such accidents to emergency responders. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-37)

“Periodically publish a list of bridge identification markings in a national register of bridges. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-38)

“to the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak):

“Develop and implement a uniform system to effectively apprise passengers of information pertaining to safety features. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-6)

“Develop and implement procedures to provide adequate passenger and crew lists to local authorities with minimum delay in emergencies. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-7)

“Equip cars with portable lighting for use by passengers in an emergency. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-8)

“to the Federal Emergency Management Agency:

“Encourage local authorities to conduct emergency drills that simulate transportation accidents involving railroad operations. (Class II, Priority Action) (I-94-8)

“to The American Waterways Operators, Inc:

“Recommend that member companies equip their tugs and towboats with suitable navigation devices, including charts. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-39)

“Assist the Coast Guard in developing a curriculum for a training course on river radar navigation. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-40)

“Recommend that member companies incorporate into towboat operator evaluations a practical method of assessing proficiency in navigation, including the use of radar. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-41)

“to the Warrior & Gulf Navigation Company:

“Require that company towboat operators complete a recognized training course on river radar navigation after the curriculum for such a course has been developed. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-42)

“Establish a training protocol that requires company towboat operators to demonstrate proficiency in use of radar, compasses, and charts and incorporate into towboat operator evaluations a practical method of assessing proficiency in river navigation techniques. including use of radar. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-43)

“Equip all company towboats with a suitable compass, a complete, up-to-date set of navigation charts for the waters over which the vessel is intended to operate. and other appropriate navigational devices. (Class II, Priority Action) (M-94-44)

“Establish procedures that encourage towboat operators to inform management when they are taking medication, to determine whether such medication may affect performance of their duties, and to arrange for a qualified relief, if necessary. (Class II, Priority, Action) (M-94-45)

“to the Association of American Railroads:

“Immediately begin to collect data on vessel collisions with railroad bridges from your members and, if appropriate, take steps to increase protection for bridges identified as vulnerable. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-9)

“Cooperate with the U.S. Department of Transportation in developing a national risk assessment program for railroad bridges. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-10)

“to the American Short Line Railroad Association:

“Cooperate with the U.S. Department of Transportation in developing a national risk assessment program for railroad bridges. (Class II, Priority Action) (R-94-12) (NTSB. Railroad-Marine AR: Derailment…Amtrak Train No. 2…CSTX Big Bayou…, 1994.)

Trainweb: “This is by far Amtrak’s worst accident. At 2:53 a.m. on September 22, 1993, the Sunset Limited (#2), Amtrak’s only transcontinental passenger train, plunged into Big Bayou Canot fourteen miles north of Mobile, Alabama, killing 42 passengers and 5 crew members (three in the locomotive and two dining car workers in the dorm car). Eight minutes earlier at 2:45 a.m., a towboat, pushing six barges and lost in a dense fog, unknowingly bumped into Big Bayou Canot Bridge, knocking the track out of alignment, causing the train to derail and plunge into the mucky waters of the bayou. Locomotive P40 #819 was about 3 weeks old when it was destroyed in the accident. The three locomotive, baggage car, trans/dorm, and first two coaches ended up in the swampy waters while the third coach (34040) was left hanging off the end of the bridge.” (Trainweb. “Amtrak Big Bayou, Alabama Derailment 09/22/93.”)

USFA: “This report details the response of the Mobile, Alabama Fire Department (MFD) to the derailment of a passenger train in a remote section of the Big Bayou Canot, nine miles north of Mobile. Two-hundred and twenty people were on board the train when it derailed, caught fire, and, in the case of some cars, became submerged in the Bayou. One-hundred and seventy-three people survived the derailment of the Sunset Limited.

“The majority of the “rescue” work was accomplished in under four hours. However, the incident was protracted because the MFD had to oversee recovery of the 47 deceased. This required sending divers into zero-visibility, subsurface, confined-space conditions. Furthermore, surface operations to support the body recovery required personnel to work in extreme heat and humidity for hours on end….

“The derailment, in the early hours of the morning, of a fully loaded passenger train into a remote waterway in an area without vehicular access might be thought to be the product of the imagination of a disaster exercise planner run wild. Unfortunately, this “worst-case scenario” did

occur and tested the mettle of the MFD and emergency responders from several neighboring jurisdictions. While the actual technical operations were more directed towards recovery rather than rescue, the experiences of the incident managers and responders are instructive about the value of pre-incident planning, exercise, and the use of the Incident Command System.” (USFA. The Derailment of the Sunset Limited, Big Bayou Canot, Alabama, September 22, 1993. FEMA, 10-9-2003 modification.)

Wikipedia: “September 22, 1993 – 1993 Big Bayou Canot train wreck, near Mobile, Alabama, United States: Barges being pushed by an off-course towboat collide with a bridge piling; the bridge shifts out of alignment, creating a kink in the rails on the CSXT’s former Louisville & Nashville Gulfcoast line. Minutes later, Amtrak’s Sunset Limited derails at high speed on the misaligned track and plunges into the water, causing a massive fuel spill and fire. 47 people are killed in Amtrak’s deadliest accident.” (Wikipedia. “List of Rail Accidents (1950-1999).”)

Sources

Drabek, Thomas E. The Human Side of Disaster. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010.

History.com. This Day in History, Disaster, September 22, 1993. “Train Derails in Alabama Swamp.” Accessed 12-08-2008 at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=tdihArticleCategory&displayDate=09/22&categoryId=disaster

National Transportation Safety Board. Railroad-Marine Accident Report: Derailment of Amtrak Train No. 2 on the CSTX Big Bayou Canot Bridge Near Mobile, Alabama, September 22, 1993 (NTSB/RAR-94/01). Wash., DC: Sep 19 1994, At: http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/1994/RAR9401.htm

Trainweb. “Amtrak Big Bayou, Alabama Derailment 09-22-93.” Accessed 1-2-2010 at: http://www.trainweb.org/vangab/bigbayou.htm

United States Fire Administration. The Derailment of the Sunset Limited, Big Bayou Canot, Alabama, September 22, 1993 (Technical Rescue Incident Report). Emmitsburg, MD: USFA, FEMA, 10-9-2003 modification. Accessed 3-18-2016 at: https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/publications/fa-163b.pdf

Wikipedia. “List of Rail Accidents (1950-1999).” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_1950-1999_rail_accidents

20th Century

1993 — June-Aug (esp.), Heat, especially July 6-16 Philadelphia Heatwave (118 deaths)–311

lornajarrettblanchard June 1, 1993

— 311 Blanchard tally based on State breakouts below.

— 299 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.[1]

–>113 June-Aug. National Climatic Data Center., NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6-8, 1993.

— 0 June. National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993.

–>109 July. National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993.

— 4 Aug. National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 8, August 1993.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. Excessive Heat and Heat Searches all U.S. States 1993.

Summary of Heat Fatalities by State

Arizona 19

Arkansas 10

District of Columbia 2

Florida 4

Georgia 1

Illinois 14

Louisiana 14

Minnesota 1

Missouri ~7

Nevada 1

New Hampshire 1

New Jersey 16

New York 14

North Carolina 11

Ohio 1

Oklahoma 16

Pennsylvania 120

South Carolina 11

Tennessee 18

Texas 26

Wisconsin 3

Breakout of 1993 Heat Fatalities by States and Localities (where noted)

Arizona (19) May-August

— 16 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 19 AZ DHS. Deaths from Exposure to Excessive Natural Heat…1992-2009. 2014, p. 17.[2]

Breakout by State or country of residence From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 15.

–15 Arizona

— 3 Other U.S. State or Canada

— 1 Mexico/Other Central or South American country

Geographic region of occurrence From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 15.

— 6 Border counties

–12 Central Arizona counties

— 1 Northern Arizona counties

Gender From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 15.

–15 Male

— 4 Female

Race/Ethnicity From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 15.

— 9 White non-Hispanic

— 6 Hispanic or Latino

— 1 Black or African American

— 2 American Indian or Alaska Native

— 1 Unknown

Age group From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 15.

— 1 0-4

— 0 5-9

— 1 10-14[3]

— 0 15-19

— 1 20-24

— 1 25-29

— 0 30-34

— 1 35-39

— 1 40-44

— 2 45-49

— 4 50-54

— 1 55-59

— 1 60-64

— 0 65-69

— 2 70-74

— 1 75-79

— 0 80-84

— 1 85+

— 1 Unknown

County of occurrence From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 16.

— 9 Maricopa

— 1 Mohave

— 5 Pima

— 2 Pinal

— 1 Yuma

Month of death From Table 1, “Characteristics of deaths…”, p. 16.

— 1 May

— 6 June

— 5 July

— 7 August

Arkansas (10)

–10 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 1 Helena, July 26. Heat stress; male cotton seed oil worker. OSHA Inspection 107706210.

California (20)

–20 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

District of Columbia ( 2)

— 2 July 10, one in northwest and one in southeast part of DC. NCDC. Storm Data, 35/7, p. 135.

Florida ( 4)

— 4 Lushine. “Underreporting…” Fig. 3, “Annual Temperature Deaths, Florida, 1979-1999.”[4]

Georgia ( 1)

— 1 Norcross, Sep 8. Heat stress; garbage truck worker; body temp. of 108° at hospital. OSHA.

Illinois (14)

–14 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 1 Wauconda, Aug 11. Newly hired (unacclimated), male, 21, carpenter’s apprentice. OSHA.[5]

Louisiana (14)

–14 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

Minnesota ( 1)

— 1 Bloomington, Aug 11. Heatstroke; male curb and sidewalk masonry worker. OSHA.

Missouri (~7)

— ~7 MO DHSS. Data & Statistical Reports. Chart: “Hyperthermia Mortality, Missouri 1980-2013.”[6]

Nevada ( 1)

— 1 Las Vegas, Clark County, Aug 3. Male, 56, “while working in 113 degree heat.” NCDC.[7]

New Hampshire ( 1)

— 1 Keene. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” July 12, 1993.

New Jersey (16)

–16 State. CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 3 State. Blanchard tally based on locality breakouts below.

— 1 Northern NJ. National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 196.

Breakout of New Jersey Heat Fatalities by Location (where noted):

— 1 Brooklawn. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” July 12, 1993.

— 1 Camden. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” July 12, 1993.

— 1 Colonia, July 12. Heatstroke; Colonia Country Club outdoor worker, extended shift, 105°.[8]

New York (14)

–14 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 1 Coastal (southeast NY), July 4-31. NCDC, Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 201.

— 1 New York City. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” 7-12-1993.

— 3 New York City. USA Today. “Heat fatalities down in Philadelphia.” 8-19-2002.

North Carolina (11)

–11 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

–11 Mirabelli and Richardson. “Heat-Related Fatalities in North Carolina.” AJPH, 95/4, 2005.[9]

— 1 Charlotte, May 28. Heat exhaustion; male roofing worker; core body temp. 107° F. OSHA.

Ohio ( 1)

— 1 Fort Loramie. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” July 12, 1993.

Oklahoma (16)

–16 Garwe (OK Dept Health). “Heat-Related Deaths, Oklahoma, 1990-2001,” 5-31-2002, p.1.[10]

–13 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

Pennsylvania (120)

— 120 Blanchard tally based on 118 for Philly and one each for Allentown and Downingtown.

— 31 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 2 State (not Philly) AP. “Heat Wave…Toll Doubles in Philly…Senior Citizens.” 8-12-1993.

Breakout of Pennsylvania Heat Fatalities by Location (where noted):

— 1 Allentown. The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” 7-12-1993.

— 1 Downington. AP. “Heat Wave Death Toll Doubles in Philly…Senior Citizens.” 8-12-1993.

— 118 Philadelphia, July 6-16. CDC. “Heat-Related Deaths After an Extreme Heat Event…”[11]

— 118 Philadelphia. Philadelphia Inquirer (Marder / Wood). “CDC Confirms…” 11-20-2015.

— 118 Philadelphia. Philadelphia Inquirer (A. R. Wood). “Phila….heat-death toll.” 6-20-2004.

— 118 Philadelphia. USA Today. “Heat fatalities down in Philadelphia.” 8-19-2002.

— 118 Philadelphia. Wilhelmi, Purvis and Harriss. Natural Hazards Review, Aug 2004, p.148.

— 111 Philadelphia. Indiana Gazette, PA (AP). “Heat-Emergency Plan Considered.” 7-28-1993

–>100 “ NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 239.

–>100 “ Kaufman. “Old and Vulnerable in Phila.’s Heat Wave Deaths…” 7-18-1993

— 84 “ CDC, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 42, No. 28, 7-23-1993.

— 41 “ The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” 7-12-1993.

— 24 “ Jul 11 AP. “Heat Wave Death Toll Doubles in Philly…Senior Citizens.” 8-12-1993

— 23 Philadelphia County. CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat.

South Carolina (11)

–11 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 8 National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No’s. 7-8, July-Aug 1993.

Breakout of South Carolina Heat Fatalities by Locality where noted:

— 1 Aiken County, July 4. Severe heat; female, 57. NCDC. Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, p. 248.

— 1 Bamburg County, July 3. Heatstroke; male, 64. NCDC. Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, p. 248.

— 1 Cherokee Co., July 8. Heat exhaustion; male, 48. NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, p.250

— 1 Darlington County, July 16. Heatstroke; male, 64. NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, 251.

— 1 Florence County, Aug 31. Heatstroke; male, 46. NCDC Storm Data, 35/8, Aug 1993, p. 117

— 1 Hampton County, July 9. Heatstroke; female, 65. NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, p.250

— 1 Pickens Co., July 10. Heat exhaustion; female, 82. NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, 251.

— 1 Richland County, July 13. Heatstroke, male, 59. NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, July 1993, p.251.

Tennessee (18)

–18 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

Texas (26)

–26 CDC WONDER. ICD-9/E900, exposure to excessive natural heat search, 9-2-2016.

— 1 Corpus Christi, June 28. Heat stress; first day on job male ditch digger; heat index 95-102°.[12]

Wisconsin ( 3)

— 1 Appleton, Outagamie County, Aug 25. Excessive heat; male constructing chain link fence.[13]

— 1 Menomonee Falls, May 10. Heat stroke; male roofer, core body temp. 108° at hospital.[14]

— 1 Wausau, Marathon County, Aug 25. Excessive heat; male training for marathon run.[15]

Narrative Information

Philadelphia

CDC: “From July 1 through July 13, 1993, the heat wave in the eastern United States has been implicated as the direct cause of or a contributing factor to 84 deaths among persons residing in the Philadelphia area.” (CDC, MMWR, Vol. 42, No. 28, July 23, 1993)

July 4-14, NCDC Storm Data: “A persistent ridge of high pressure centered over the southeast and extending northward well into the Middle Atlantic region began a heat wave that lasted eleven days. The searing daytime heat, followed by humid nights offering no relief, resulted in numerous deaths – especially in Philadelphia. This heat wave claimed over one hundred lives in Philadelphia, most of which apparently occurred over the weekend of the 9^th and 10^th. The number of deaths related to this heat wave was the most ever in Philadelphia, however, this number was highly controversial and partially a result of a campaign to educate the public about preventable deaths among the frail elderly. The overwhelming majority of the deaths were among people 60 years and older. In too many cases, the victims had been shuttered away in the upstairs of intercity apartments with no fan or air conditioner. In Philadelphia, there were nine days of 95 or above temperatures during the heat wave. July 2^nd to July 4^th marked three consecutive days with a temperature of 100 degrees or more. Aside from the fatalities related to the excessive heat, several concrete roads buckled and/or exploded, crops were scorched, and livestock were less productive….” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 239.)

Newspapers Chronological

July 12, AP: “Philadelphia’s death toll doubled as the heat wave entered its eighth day and officials warned that the number could rise even higher before the relief promised by the National Weather Service arrives by Tuesday. Twenty-four people were declared dead of heat-related causes in Philadelphia Sunday, raising the city’s heat wave death toll to 41, according to City Health Commissioner Dr. Robert K. Ross.

“At least two other deaths elsewhere in the state last week were attributed to the heat.

“Most of the victims were senior citizens who lived in apartments without air conditioning, and many had underlying conditions such as heart disease or diabetes, leaving them vulnerable to the heat, Ross said. “My concern is that we’re not out of the woods yet,” Ross said. “We have a minimum of two more days of high heat and humidity.”

“In 1991, 25 people died during a heat wave in the city. That dropped to just four heat-related deaths last year. Health Department spokesman Jeff Moran said the 1993 count was the most in memory.

“A 4-year-old boy playing in a station wagon died Saturday when he was overcome by the heat. The unidentified child, from the Philadelphia suburb of Downington, was visiting relatives in West Nantmeal Township when he climbed into his aunt’s parked station wagon and fell victim to the heat, state police said.

“The state’s other heat-related death was an Allentown woman who was found dead on Thursday.

“The heat drove someone to steal six air conditioning units from an apartment complex by pretending to be a repairman, York police said. The suspect first shut off circuit breakers to cut power to the unit, then knocked on residents’ doors and told them the air conditioners were broken and needed repairing, police said. Police have not arrested a suspect. The tenants, all elderly residents, received replacement air conditioners from the apartment building, officials said.

“The American Red Cross in Philadelphia was accepting donations of fans and air conditioners to pass on to city residents, said Steve Michaelson, case work services manager. The Red Cross opened up a shelter for people who were too hot to remain in their homes, and have 10 volunteers working a 24-hour heat hotline, Michaelson said. “We’ve been averaging about 40 to

50 calls an hour at our peak area,” Michaelson said, adding the hotline has been receiving 20 to 30 calls an hour since Friday. Most people were asking for fans or air conditioners while others sought advice on how to beat the heat, he said….

“Sunday seemed more bearable after three days of high temperatures of 100 degrees or more. The 4 p.m. reading was 96 in Philadelphia, and humidity was down, so the heat index — measuring the what the temperature feels like — was only 97 degrees, weather officials said. The weather service kept a heat advisory in effect today for extreme southeast Pennsylvania and for southern New Jersey except for the coast. A cold front over the upper Great Lakes will reach eastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey tonight, and could bring cooler temperatures by Tuesday, the weather service said”.” (AP. “Heat Wave Death Toll Doubles in Philly; Mostly Senior Citizens.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA, 7-12-1993, p. 1.)

July 12, The News, Frederick, MD: “After almost two weeks of miserable heat and humidity, cooler weather is on the way. In the meantime, though, temperatures are expected to be in the low to mid-90s today with a 40 percent chance of thunderstorms this afternoon.

“Not only Frederick County, but the rest of the East Coast has been baking under what has been triple-digit heat in some places.

“In Philadelphia, 24 people were declared dead of heat-related causes, raising the city’s death toll to 41, according to Dr. Robert K. Ross, the city’s health commissioner. Many of the dead were senior citizens who lived in apartments without air conditioning, and many had underlying conditions such as heart disease or diabetes, leaving them vulnerable to the heat, Dr. Ross said.

Other cities reporting one death each during the heat wave were:

New York City;

Allentown, Pa.;

Brooklawn and

Camden, N.J.;

Fort Loramie, Ohio; and

Keene, N.H.

“Meanwhile, beaches and pools were packed again Sunday from New England to Miami….Air conditioners and fans were in demand all over the region. A shipment of 150 air conditioners at a Silo appliance store in Whitehall Township, Pa., sold Saturday in less than two hours…And the York Ice Co. in Pennsylvania has been selling between 150 and 175 tons of ice a day…” (The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” July 12, 1993.)

July 12, Kaufman: “Some were afraid to open the window because of crime; others were afraid to turn on the air conditioner because of the electric bills. Most were over 65. Some had diabetes and heart problems. More than a few suffered from some level of apparent dementia. They often lived alone, though most had neighbors and relatives who tried to help but were often rebuffed. Most were poor. And all, it is now clear, were in some way dangerously frail.

“These are the more than 100 people who the Philadelphia medical examiner said died of heat-related causes during the heat wave of 1993. Like trees toppled in a storm or withered from the scorching sun, they were the ones too diseased or too injured to withstand the harsh conditions.

“The number of heat-related deaths in Philadelphia has shocked many people, especially because it is so much higher than in other big cities caught in the same heat wave. Most other cities record heat deaths only when a medical determination has been made that the victim succumbed to hyperthermia. The Philadelphia Medical Examiner’s Office records heat deaths in cases in which the heat contributed to the death, even though the victim had underlying health problems.

“However they are counted, the 100-plus deaths offer a window into a world that most Philadelphians seldom see – the city’s increasingly large population of frail and vulnerable elderly. At 15 percent, Philadelphia has the largest proportion of elderly people among the 20 largest cities in America, according to the 1990 census. Philadelphia has more than 240,000 people over 65, and almost 23,000 over age 85.

“Recent studies have found a high proportion of the city’s elderly to be ill (37 percent reported themselves to be in “fair or poor health”), isolated (44 percent live alone) and poor (34 percent reported incomes below the poverty line). All these numbers, gathered in 1990 by the Philadelphia Health Management Corporation, exceed national norms. Given these conditions, say those who work with the elderly, it should hardly be surprising that a heat wave would take such a toll. “I think what we are seeing here is a symptom of a much bigger problem with our elderly, rather than a specific disease,” Health Commissioner Robert K. Ross said. “What we have in Philadelphia is thousands of elderly people who are literally living on the edge,” he said. “Eight days of hot weather and – here in 1993 when air conditioning is not exactly a new thing – 100 elderly people die because of the heat. This shows that in terms of long-term care for our elderly, we are in some serious trouble.”

“Rodney Williams, executive director of the Philadelphia Corporation for Aging (PCA), which oversees most programs for the elderly in the city, believes that what is unique about the recent heat wave is that the elderly deaths have been widely reported. “There have been these kind of unfortunate things for years,” he said. ”But they have been unrecorded, unannounced and unresponded to. What’s different now is that people are talking about it.”

“The absence of comprehensive long-term care is not a problem unique to Philadelphia. But the city does have some unique characteristics. For example, officials say that:

Elderly Philadelphians are far more likely to own their own homes than elderly in other cities. This means that many poor elderly, who elsewhere might rely on landlords for services, are themselves responsible for keeping up their homes. And on a small, fixed income, an air conditioner and the electricity to power it quickly become a luxury.

Because Philadelphia has so many elderly people living alone – the PHMC study estimates 110,000 live on their own – some inevitably fall through social and family safety nets. Almost 30,000 elderly Philadelphians “report not having anyone to help them if their health deteriorated,” according to the study.

Philadelphia has 7,000 fewer nursing home beds than it needs, according to the state Department of Health. For poor elderly who rely on Medicaid to pay their nursing home bills, it can take years to find a home that will accept them. At least three of those who died last week had at one point applied for the Medicaid certification needed to get on a nursing home waiting list, according to PCA.

“People have always wondered what happens to frail people who can’t get into a nursing home or get other care they might need,” said Bernice Soffer, executive director of the Coalition of Advocates of the Infirm Elderly. “I think we are now seeing what happens – some just die earlier than they might have. “This heat wave and the deaths should be a wake-up call for the city.”

“For each of the deaths ruled heat-related by the Medical Examiner’s Office, there is a report with medical history, police observations and comments from neighbors and family. From these reports, this pattern emerged:

“The overwhelming number of victims were old, twice as likely to be female, and about evenly divided between black and white. Given that there are almost three times as many white elderly in the city as black elderly, this means that blacks were disproportionately hard-hit. It also means that minority and poor neighborhoods such as Kensington and North and West Philadelphia had far more victims than their elderly population would warrant.

“The medical examiner’s reports also show that many of the victims lived alone, although few seemed to be without social contacts. Grace Harkins, who lives in Virginia, told authorities this about her aunt, 87-year-old Lee Odgers: “She had refused any and all offers of help.” Harkins called Odgers one day before the elderly woman died. “I offered to get her an air conditioner, but she refused,” Harkins said. “She was a very independent-type person.” The police noted that all the windows were closed in Odger’s second-floor Northeast Philadelphia apartment, and that candles on the wall had melted from the heat.

“Henry Ewell of North Philadelphia lived on his own, but relatives and others frequently came in and out of his home. Yet when authorities removed his body last week, the thermostat on the dining room wall registered over 90 degrees. Every window in the 74-year-old, World War II veteran’s house was closed, except for one in the room where his great-nephew, in town for the summer, sometimes stayed. Ewell’s body was found by a neighbor, Courtland Miller Jr. He said, “It was so hot that as soon as the police officer came in there, he just started busting out in a sweat.” When relatives arrived from out of state to make funeral arrangements, they borrowed three fans from neighbors to cool down the house a bit. And they finally opened the large window in the living room. “He never pulled that window up,” said Esther Robinson, Ewell’s niece, who was fanning herself inside the still-steaming house in the 1700 block of North Taney Street on Wednesday. “I don’t know why he never did; maybe it’s the crime in the city,” she said. Ewell, retired from the Edison Shoe Co., was not well. He had been in the hospital in February for prostate cancer, but relatives say that his condition was under control and that Ewell remained an involved person. Earlier in the year, neighbors said, he had opened his home to a homeless woman who had been living outside….

“Almost every day for the last few years, Carmen Lerro would check in on his great-aunt, 84-year-old Katherine Lerro, at her Italian Market apartment. It wasn’t hard because Carmen worked on the first floor, and his great-aunt lived on the third. She had lived there for decades with her sister, but the sister died several years ago and left Katherine living alone. Carmen said that his great-aunt always complained of feeling cold. He said she turned off the third-floor central air conditioning he had installed, and generally kept all the windows closed. He also said she wore at least one sweater and a wool hat when inside. She was wearing them when Carmen found her dead in her apartment last Sunday. “I had been up there earlier telling her to open the windows and take off her sweater, but she just didn’t want to,” he said. “It had to be over 100 in that room.” Carmen Lerro said his great-aunt had had long-term psychological problems, but feared nursing homes and other institutions. “She just wanted to stay in that apartment and look out the window,” he said.

“According to Health Commissioner Ross, many of those who died seemed to have been mentally confused. “There is a component of senility involved,” he said. “Many are discovered inappropriately dressed for the weather, with two and three layers of clothing. “Maybe they lived through some very tough times and they think they can tough this out, too.”

“Alice Irving was never bothered much by the heat. “She always wore long sleeves. She’d get cool quick,” her daughter, Mary Porter, said during an interview at Irving’s South Philadelphia home. And because of her arthritis, she didn’t like air conditioning. But that does not explain why, even as temperatures reached the 100-degree mark last weekend, the 73-year-old woman kept closed the windows of her rowhouse on the 1300 block of South Chadwick Street. Her daughter said that was to keep out the dust. “My mother didn’t like her curtains dirty,” Porter said. “She didn’t open the windows.” Irving was found last Sunday by her granddaughter, Vanessa Porter. Irving had collapsed on a small chair near the front door. Vanessa Porter, who lived with Irving, said her grandmother had a different reason for locking all the windows. “She had to lock the door because of the security,” she said. “People tried to rob us before, and it was unsafe to even open the windows because we live in a drug-infested area.”

“According to Lynne Kotranski, who helped write the 1990 PHMC report on the elderly in Philadelphia, one of their principal findings was that many seniors were vulnerable socially as much as medically. As many as 21,000 elderly in Philadelphia not only live alone but report having very few social supports, Kotranski said. “We talking here about a pretty dramatic situation, with so many people isolated and with few helpers,” she said. It is easy to see how winter blizzards imperil already precarious lives, she said, but heat waves don’t have the same kind of drama.

“For instance, the state Department of Public Welfare makes grants to low- income residents to pay for heating bills. That program, which uses federal money, could also issue summertime grants for air-conditioning, but a department spokesman said the state decided some time ago not to make those grants. “They looked at the greatest need, which was the wintertime in Pennsylvania,” Mark McGaffin said, referring to officials who wrote the rules for the state heating assistance program.

“Quite of few of those whose deaths were deemed heat-related had a relationship with a senior center or with PCA itself. Karen Mudd, a spokeswoman for PCA, said that in 23 of the first 70 heat-related elderly deaths, the victim had received some kind of services from PCA in recent years. Three had begun the process of qualifying for a Medicaid-sponsored nursing home placement, and seven were receiving in-home services such as meals-on-wheels and homemaker services.

“One of those needing help was 86-year-old Jennie Scott of North Philadelphia. According to Veronica Jackson, captain of her North Lambert Street block, Scott lived alone and depended on neighbors and friends to bring groceries. “I went to see her every day. I would go get her water, make sure she was doing OK. She had two fans, but she hadn’t turned on the fan on the second- floor bedroom,” Jackson said. “Her health was pretty good.” She said that Scott had a daughter in Florida and a cousin in the area, but no other family she was aware of. Scott also had a social worker from the North City Congress, a senior center in North Philadelphia. The social worker helped Jackson to get storm doors, new windows and fans, and to pay her bills.

“Scott was not the only North City Congress client to succumb during the heat wave. According to Mary Sweeney, assistant executive director of the center, seven others died during the extreme heat. Sweeney sighed when asked about the number of deaths in poorer areas such as North Philadelphia. “That’s where the greatest need is,” Sweeney said. “That’s why we’re here.”

“For 19 years, Rita Schiavone has looked after shut-ins. What began as a personal mission has become a major endeavor, with hundreds of volunteer visitors looking in on as many as 1,500 frail elderly in Philadelphia and surrounding counties. “This is the worst summer we have ever had, by far,” Schiavone said from her Aid for Friends office on Holme Avenue in the Northeast. Officials from two other volunteer groups that visit shut-ins – Little Brothers, Friends of the Elderly and the Senior Companion Program – reached similar conclusions. “We go out and visit people and many can barely breathe, it’s so hot,” she said. “And this heat wave hit when many of our volunteers are on vacation.” Schiavone said that Aid for Friends now has a waiting list of 40 shut-ins who need visitors and more. AFF also takes food to many shut-ins and tries to buy small appliances – including toasters, fans and small air conditioners – for those without. During the heat wave, Schiavone said that volunteers frequently found shut- ins with air conditioners installed but unplugged. “Older folks often don’t like change, and they will resist something like an air conditioner,” she said. “We told them we would even pay the electric bills if they turned them on, but some just said no. “You can’t force people to do what they don’t want to do”.” (Kaufman. “Old and Vulnerable in Phila.’s Heat Wave Deaths…” Inquirer (Philly). 7-18-1993)

July 28, AP/Indiana Gazette: “Harrisburg — An elderly person living alone with no air conditioning is a typical example of a heat-related death, a Philadelphia health official told a statewide task force on heat emergencies. In many such cases, temperatures in the home exceed 130 degrees and residents are reluctant to open their windows because they fear for their safety, said Lawrence Robinson, the city’s deputy health commissioner.

“Philadelphia reported 111 heat-related deaths, most of them among elderly people, during the July 4-14 heat wave that saw temperatures rise above 90 degrees throughout the state. A handful of deaths were reported elsewhere in Pennsylvania.

“The task force convened Tuesday to develop a statewide plan to limit heat-related deaths and distress in the future. “Heat-related deaths are preventable. They are not inevitable,” said Acting Gov. Mark Singel, chairman of the statewide task force. “We need to protect people from life-threatening risks in hot weather.” Singel said the state had good response plans for winter emergencies but needed to establish “a statewide mechanism” to deal with the heat — the nation’s second biggest weather-related killer, after the cold. The panel was charged with developing ways to better coordinate social support and emergency services provided by the various state, local and private agencies represented on the task force.

“Following opening remarks, task force participants broke into three “brainstorming work groups” and planned at least one more meeting before issuing recommendations. A preliminary strategy is expected in three weeks and a more formal one in two months.” (AP/Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. “Heat-Emergency Plan Considered.” 7-28-1993, p. 9.)

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Mirabelli, Maria C. and David B. Richardson. “Heat-Related Fatalities in North Carolina.” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 95, No. 4, April 2005, pp. 635-637. Accessed 9-2-2015 at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1449233/

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National Climatic Data Center. Storm Events Database. Excessive Heat Search Results for all U.S. States and Areas, 1993. Accessed 3-19- 2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/listevents.jsp?eventType=%28Z%29+Excessive+Heat&beginDate_mm=01&beginDate_dd=01&beginDate_yyyy=1993&endDate_mm=12&endDate_dd=31&endDate_yyyy=1993&hailfilter=0.00&tornfilter=0&windfilter=000&sort=DT&submitbutton=Search&statefips=-999%2CALL

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Events Database. Heat Search Results for all U.S. States and Areas, 1993. Accessed 3-19- 2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/listevents.jsp?eventType=%28Z%29+Heat&beginDate_mm=01&beginDate_dd=01&beginDate_yyyy=1993&endDate_mm=12&endDate_dd=31&endDate_yyyy=1993&hailfilter=0.00&tornfilter=0&windfilter=000&sort=DT&submitbutton=Search&statefips=-999%2CALL

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 102528577 – G. W. Thiel, Inc.” Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Labor, OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=102528577

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection 103469300 – Gross Roofing, Inc. [Butler, WI].” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=103469300

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 107180879 – Waste Management of Atlanta.” Accessed 3-20-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=107180879

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 107430316 – RNR Construction.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=107430316

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 107706210 – Helena Cotton Oil Co., Inc.” Washington: OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=107706210

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 109056366 – Colonia Country Club.” Washington, DC: OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=109056366

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 120371059 – Concrete Master.” Washington, DC: OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=120371059

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries [1993]. “Inspection: 18540716 – Simon Roofing and Sheet Metal Corp. [Charlotte, NC]. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=18540716

Philadelphia Inquirer (Dianna Marder and Anthony R. Wood). “CDC Confirms City’s Counting of Heat Deaths.” 6-14-1994. Accessed 11-20-2015 at: http://articles.philly.com/1994-06-14/news/25831588_1_heat-related-deaths-heat-deaths-heat-wave

Philadelphia Inquirer (Anthony R. Wood). “Phila. Chilling its heat-death toll. It has done more to save lives in heat waves than any other city, a study found. Hotlines and other low-cost measures were cited.” 6-20-2004. Accessed 11-20-2015 at: http://articles.philly.com/2004-06-20/news/25370429_1_heat-wave-heat-deaths-death-toll

Salt Lake Tribune. “Utah wilderness therapy deaths.” 10-11-2007. Accessed 11-13-2015 at: http://www.sltrib.com/news/ci_7139316

The News, Frederick, MD. “Break in Heat Wave on the Way.” 7-12-1993. Accessed at: http://www.newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=11982782

USA Today. “Heat fatalities down in Philadelphia.” 8-19-2002. Accessed 11-1-2015 at: http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/news/2002/2002-08-19-phillyheatdeaths.htm

Wilhelmi, Olga V., Kathleen L. Purvis and Robert C. Harriss. “Designing a Geospatial Information Infrastructure for Mitigation of Heat Wave Hazards in Urban Areas.” Natural Hazards Review, August 2004, pp. 147-158. Accessed at: http://openclimate.org:16080/heat_waves/Doc4001_Wilhelmi_Heat_Mitigation_GIS_NatHazRev_2004.pdf — and

http://www.climateknowledge.org/heat_waves/Doc4001_Wilhelmi_Heat_Mitigation_GIS_NatHazRev_2004.pdf

[1] CDC-Wonder results relate only to cases where hyperthermia was coded ICD-9/E900 as primary (direct) cause of death by a medical examiner on a death certificate. “Heat-related” deaths are viewed as those where heat was an indirect or contributing cause of death, and are not included. Even with what we would view as a direct E900.0 heat death we know that sometimes such deaths are coded as something else – such as a dehydration in the case of a child left in a hot car, or heart-failure brought on by a heat stroke, and thus do not show up in a exposure to excessive heat query. Also, CDC WONDER suppresses (does not show) fatality numbers in a State where the loss of life is less than 10, though these deaths are apparently incorporated into the national total. Shows U.S. pop. of 260,024,637.

[2] “Data on the number and characteristics of deaths from heat due to weather conditions were obtained from the mortality database containing information from the death certificates filed with the Arizona Department of Health Services….In addition to death certificates where exposure to excessive natural heat was indicated as the underlying cause of death, heatstroke or sunstroke may be reported on death certificates as contributing factors that had a bearing on the death, but were not its underlying cause. For example, heatstroke and sunstroke were mentioned in…Arizona death certificates where atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…, respiratory disease…, diabetes…, or drug overdose/alcohol intoxication…were reported as the underlying cause of death. Those heat-related deaths are beyond the scope of this report.” (p. 1)

[3] According to the Salt Lake Tribune (“Utah wilderness therapy deaths.” 10-11-2007), “Jamie Young, 13, of Tucson, Ariz., died June 2, 1993, in Ramsey Canyon Hospital and Treatment Center in Sierra Vista, Ariz., of heat exhaustion after hiking in Tanque Verde Falls in Arizona.”

[4] Figure 3 is a chart which shows heat deaths in one color and cold deaths in another on the same horizontal bar for each year. The fatality range shown on the left of the chart is in increments of five, going up to thirty. The bars for each year are shown diagonally and do not show any numbers. This does not make them readily readable. Thus one has to measure with a ruler the bar showing the lowest combined deaths (1979), which appears to show one cold death and one heat death. With the unit of measurement of one death then measured against the heat portion of all the other bars, one can get an approximation of the heat deaths for each year. I say “approximate” in that by this method we counted 133 heat deaths over the 21-year period included in the graph, whereas the text of the article notes that there were 125. Repetitious measurement attempts gave us the same result. The article notes that the data came from death certificates collected by the Public Health Statistics Section, Office of Vital Statistics, Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services.

[5] “Inspection: 102528577 – G. W. Thiel, Inc.” OSHA “Accident Investigation Summary” notes: employee “was on his seventh day of employment…Temperatures…on the sixth and seventh days of work…ranged from 91 to 100 degrees F with approximately 60 to 70 percent humidity, 0 to 5 mph winds, and sun. Water and first aid were not provided by the employer. Employee…was found comatose with a temperature of 108 degrees F. There was a 28 minute delay before he arrived at the hospital. Employee…experienced severe fibromyolysis, kidney and liver failure, and brain damage. Employee…never regained consciousness and died 12 days later on August 23, 1993, from multiple organ failure secondary to heat stroke.”

[6] Note “about” 7 deaths in that chart plots fatalities by increments of 10 on the left axis and years along the bottom, with a line connecting dots. Takes interpretation, even with enlargement.

[7] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 8, August 1993.

[8] OSHA. “Inspection: 109056366 – Colonia Country Club.”

[9] From Figure 1, a chart with the number of heat-related deaths along the left axis, and the year along the bottom.

[10] From Figure 1. “Heat-Related Deaths by Year, Oklahoma, 1990-2001.” Deaths in Figure 1 are denoted by a horizontal bar, against backdrop of horizontal lines in increments of five. The precise number of deaths is not given, thus one has to make an educated guess in looking at the Figure and contrasting one bar against others.

[11] “During July 6-16, 1993 an EHE [Extreme Heat Event] in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, resulted in 118 deaths (7.5 deaths per 100,000).”

[12] Occupational Safety & Health Administration. “Inspection: 107430316 – RNR Construction.”

[13] National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 8, Aug 1993, p. 142.

[14] Occupational Safety & Health Administration. “Inspection 103469300 – Gross Roofing, Inc.”

[15] National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 8, Aug 1993, p. 142.

20th Century

1993 — May 3, Arson Fire, Apt./Tenement Bldg., Burlington Ave., Los Angeles, CA — 10

lornajarrettblanchard May 3, 1993

— 12 National Fire Protection Association. “Home Fires With Ten or More Fatalities.”[1]

— 10 L.A. Times. “Two Members of 18^th Street Gang Charged in 10 Murders.” 11-26-1998.

— 10 UPI. “Many fire code violations found in Westlake.” 5-24-1993.

—>9 New York Times. “Fire at Apartments in Los Angeles Kills at Least 7 Children.” 5-4-1993.

Narrative Information

May 3, NYT: “Los Angeles, — Fire swept through an apartment complex near downtown today, killing at least nine people — most of them children — and injuring more than 40 others. Seven children and two adults, one of them a pregnant woman near term, were killed, said Capt. Steve Ruda of the Los Angeles Fire Department. About two dozen people were taken to area hospitals, Fire Chief Donald Manning said. An additional 20 people were treated at the scene, officials said. Fire doors left open allowed deadly smoke to pour throughout the building, Chief Manning said. The chief said the doors were probably opened to allow ventilation during recent warm weather. The cause of the blaze was under investigation….” (New York Times. “Fire at Apartments in Los Angeles Kills at Least 7 Children.” 5-4-1993.)

May 24, UPI: “Los Angeles — Fire safety violations such as those that contributed the deaths of 10 people three weeks ago in a crowded apartment house apparently are very common in the Westlake area of Los Angeles. An investigation published by the Los Angeles Times Monday found that the densely populated neighborhood has several life-threatening violations. In addition, the Los Angeles Fire Department’s enforcement system is plagued by slipshod inspections and record-keeping, the paper said.

“The Times reviewed inspection files chosen at random for 75 of the estimated 1,200 to 1,400 apartment buildings west of downtown. The files showed most buildings did not receive required annual inspections and that some violations identified years ago never were corrected. The documents showed half the buildings had been cited for broken or missing fire extinguishers. Some buildings in the high-crime neighborhood had fire exits locked shut with chains and windows covered with steel bars that cannot be opened from the inside. One in three had been cited for fire doors that were broken or propped open. Doors illegally propped open were blamed for the rapid spread of lethal smoke in the May 3 apartment fire. Most building managers neglected to post signs telling residents how to escape. The signs that were posted usually were in English, impossible for many of the Hispanic immigrants who live there to read.

“Fire Battalion Chief Dean Cathey said the department is struggling against reduced city funding to keep up with inspections and follow-ups. Deputy City Attorney Richard Bobb, who investigates slum cases, told the Times that these overcrowded, poorly maintained buildings ‘are deathtraps about to explode.’” (UPI. “Many fire code violations found in Westlake.” 5-24-1993.)

Nov 26, 1998: Los Angeles Times (Rainey and Frammolino): “More than five years after one of the city’s worst arson fires killed three women and seven children in a tenement building west of downtown Los Angeles, prosecutors Wednesday filed multiple murder charges against two members of the notorious 18th Street gang. Prosecutors said they will attempt to try Rogelio Andrade and Allan Lobos, both 22, as adults for the fire, which they allegedly ignited to intimidate an apartment manager who had tried to drive drug dealers off her property.

“The two men pleaded not guilty Wednesday in Eastlake Juvenile Court. The 1993 fire exposed the substandard condition of many buildings crammed with immigrant families in the Westlake-Pico Union neighborhood. A Times investigation also revealed that the Fire Department inspected the area infrequently and haphazardly.

“Investigators said they suspected from the beginning that gang members set the deadly fire. But they could not identify the perpetrators until this spring, when a gang member arrested in an unrelated slaying told Rampart Division police that he knew who started the so-called “Burlington fire.”….

“The 69-unit apartment building at 330 S. Burlington Ave. was one of many in the poor Westlake community beset by gang members at the time of the fire on May 3, 1993, authorities said. Just hours before the blaze erupted, the apartment’s manager ordered two men out of the building, suspecting that they were dealing drugs. The flames spread quickly through that hot, late afternoon, left unchecked because a series of fire doors were either propped or nailed open. Most of the victims could not escape the second and third floor hallways, where they suffocated….

“After the fire, a Times investigation found that many of the dozens of apartment buildings crammed into the Westlake-Pico Union neighborhood had not been subjected to yearly inspections by the Los Angeles Fire Department. Many of the buildings had serious fire safety violations, such as missing fire extinguishers and padlocked emergency exits. The Burlington building had earlier been the target of an arson, and inspections had detected a series of safety violations there–but they were not corrected. As a result of the Burlington blaze, the Fire Department implemented a computerized inspection system to help track building inspections. An inspector immediately was added to the neighborhood’s Station 11….” (L.A. Times (Rainey and Frammolino). “Two Members of 18^th Street Gang Charged in 10 Murders.” 11-26-1998.)

Sources

Los Angeles Times (James Rainey and Ralph Frammolino). “Two Members of 18^th Street Gang Charged in 10 Murders.” 11-26-1998. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: http://articles.latimes.com/1998/nov/26/local/me-47932

National Fire Protection Association. “Home Fires With Ten or More Fatalities.” Accessed 3-20-2016 at: http://www.nfpa.org/research/reports-and-statistics/fires-in-the-us/multiple-death-fires/homes-fires-with-ten-or-more-fatalities

New York Times. “Fire at Apartments in Los Angeles Kills at Least 7 Children.” 5-4-1993. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/04/us/fire-at-apartments-in-los-angeles-kills-at-least-7-children.html

United Press International. “Many fire code violations found in Westlake.” 5-24-1993. Accessed 3-20-2016 at: http://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/05/24/Many-fire-code…/8007738216000/

[1] Appears to be a mistake. Later reporting is that seven children and three women died.

20th Century

1993 — May-early Nov, July (esp.), Midwest Flooding, especially MS & MO Rivers –72-84

lornajarrettblanchard May 1, 1993

–72-84 Blanchard tally from State breakouts below.[1]

–>60 Cdapress.com. “The ‘Great Flood of 1993’ was the Midwest’s worst…” 6-17-2013.[2]

— 52 Theiling, Charles (USGS). “The Flood of 1993.” Ch. 15 in Ecological…, 1999, p. 15-3.[3]

— 52 History.com. This Day in History, Disaster, July 22, 1993. “Kaskaskia is Inundated…”

— 52 Weather Channel. “The Mississippi River Flood of 1993.” No date (1995-2011 copr.)

— 52 Wilkins. “Living with the Flood: Human and Governmental Responses to…” 1996, p.221.

— 50 AccuWeather.com (Alex Sosnowski). “Flooding inundates St. Louis area…” 1-1-2016.

— 50 City of Kansas City, MO. Emergency Management History (website). “Disasters.”

— 50 FEMA. The 1993 Great Midwest Flood: Voices 10 Years Later. 2003, xii.

— 50 IL Assoc. for Floodplain and Stormwater Mgmt. News. “…Anniversary – 10 Years…”

— 50 Larson, Lee (NWS). “The Great USA Flood of 1993.” June 1996.

— 50 NOAA. “Quiet Beginning Heralded Nation’s Worst Flood in 1993.” NOAA Magazine, 2003.

— 50 NWS. The Great Flood of 1993 (webpage). Quad Cities, IA/IL, Davenport, IA: NWS.[4]

— 50 New York Times. “Great Flood of 1993.” May 28, 2011.

— 50 Webley, Kayla and Robert Holmes (USGS). “Top 10 Historic U.S. Floods.” Time.

— 48 Associated Press. “Midwest Flood, Waco Fire Voted Top Stories of 1993.” 12-31- 1993.

— 48 Burt and Stroud. Extreme Weather: A Guide & Record Book. 2004, 129.

— 48 Center for Environmental Sciences, St Louis Univ. “Mississippi…River Floods.”

—>48 Johnson, Holmes, Waite. The Great Flood of 1993…Upper… (USGS Info. Sheet) 1993.[5]

— 48 National Climatic Data Center, “Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters 1980-1994.”

— 48 NOAA. “NOAA’s Top U.S. Weather, Water and Climate Events of the 20^th Century.”

— 47 USGS, Missouri Water Science Center. The Great Flood of 1993. 1-18-2013 mod.[6]

— 43 AP. “Rest from rain…Midwestern…” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 7-29-1993, 8.

— 42 The Capital, Annapolis, MD. “K.C. Braces Against Deluge.” July 27, 1993, p. A2.

— 38 Galloway. Learning from the Mississippi Flood of 1993… Nov, 1995, p. 3 of 29.

— 35 Blanchard tally of fatalities identified by locality of death with State breakouts below.

— 29 Jackson. “Need to Keep Flooding in Perspective.” Aiken Standard, SC. 7-23-1993, p. 6.

—>19 AP, Des Moines. “Flood not done; Gore pledges aid.” Ottawa Herald, KS. 7-13-1993, p.3.

— 16 AP. “Mighty Mississippi continues rampage.” Hays Daily News, KS. 7-8-1993, p. 8.

Summary of Fatalities by State

Illinois — 4

Iowa — 5-17

Kansas — 1

Minnesota — 4

Mississippi — 1

Missouri — 49

Nebraska — 2

North Dakota — 2

South Dakota — 3

Wisconsin — 1

Breakout of Fatalities by State

Illinois ( 4)

— 4 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 1 State. The News, Frederick, MD. “Floods Knock Out Water…for Des Moines.” 7-12-1993.

— 1 Madison, July 22. Male, 22 fell into Mississippi and disappeared; body found days later.[7]

Iowa ( 5-17)[8]

–17 Zogg (Senior Hydrologist, NWSWFO Des Moines, IA. The Top Five Iowa Floods. 3-2014.

— 5 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 1 Des Moines River floodwaters, July 24. Male, 45; tried to drive over water-covered bridge.[9]

— 1 Ely/Shueyville area, July 7. Male, 70, drove his car off county road F-12 into floodwater.[10]

Kansas ( 1)

— 1 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

Minnesota ( 4)

— 4 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 3 State. The News, Frederick MD. “Floods Knock Out Water…for Des Moines.” 7-12-1993.

— 1 Le Center, Le Sueur Co., June. Drowning; girl, 5, “fell into the raging Cannon River…”[11]

— 1 Marshall, Lyon Co., Redwood Riv., June 17-30. Drowning; boy, 4 fell into swollen river.[12]

— 1 Wanamingo, ~July 5. Drowning; boy (Andrew Sather), 5, “in…swollen Zumbro River…”[13]

Mississippi ( 1)

— 1 Vicksburg, Warren Co., July 11. Drowning; male drove his automobile into flood waters.[14]

Missouri (49)

–50 Statewide. Wilkins. “Living with the Flood…” Chap. 10, p. 221 in Changnon, 1996.[15]

–49 MO Monthly Vital Statistics. “Focus…1993 Elderly Mortality…”28/10, Dec 1994, p. 3.[16]

–44 State Adding June flash flood fatality to 43 deaths (July 1-early Nov) reported by CDC.

–43 State, July 1-early Nov. CDC. “Flood-Related Mortality–Missouri, 1993.” 12-10-1993.[17]

–27 State, July 1-Aug 31. CDC. “Flood-Related Mortality–Missouri, 1993.” 12-10-1993

–21 “…directly related to the floods and resulted from drowning…”

— 6 Indirect (“i.e., flood-related…with no direct physical contact with flood water).

–13 Motor-vehicle related.

–16 Flash-flooding.

–14 From drowning

–8 Four separate motor-vehicle-related incidents.

–11 Riverine flooding.

–7 Drowning.

–3 Separate motor-vehicle-related incidents.

— 6 Indirect

–2 Electrocution.

–2 Stress-induced cardiac arrests.

–2 Trauma, motor-vehicle crashes when usual traffic patterns diverted

because of rising water.

–21 Flash and riverine flood drownings.

–10 Recreational activities.

— 6 Flash flood inundated a cave in which victims were exploring.

— 4 Separate riverine flooding deaths.

–16 Late Sep-Early Nov. CDC. “Flood-Related Mortality–Missouri, 1993.” 12-10-1993.

–14 Motor-vehicle-related

— 2 Rising water from Missouri River flooded homes.

–25 “ Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

–23 “ The Examiner, Independence. “Drowning victim’s body found in…” 8-3-1993, 10A.[18]

–22 “ Blanchard tally from locality breakouts below.

–15 “ Independence Examiner, MO. “Officials: Worry about new rains,” 7-22-1993, 12A.

–13 “ The News, Frederick MD. “Floods Knock Out Water…for Des Moines.” 7-12-1993.

— 1 Buchanan County, July 30. Drowning; male, 51 waded into floodwater; swept away.[19]

— 6 Cliff Cave, Cliff Cave Park, St. Louis County, July 23. Boys and group home counselors.[20]

— 1 Daviess County, July 8. Electrocution; male, 51, standing in floodwater in his restaurant.[21]

— 1 Foster area, Bastes Co., July 25. Swept into Marais Des Cygnes; was sitting on riverbank.[22]

— 3 Jenkins area, Hwy 39, Barry Co., July 6; car swept off bridge; male, 53, female, 43, girl, 10.[23]

— 1 Jenkins area, Hwy 39, Barry Co., July 6; car swept off road by floodwater; female, 54.[24]

— 2 Kansas City, July. City of Kansas City, MO. Emer. Mgmt. History website. “Disasters.”

–1 South KC, body found July 11. Electrocution; male, 35, found in flooded basement.[25]

–1 Southwest Boulevard. Drowning; body of man found July 11 after water dropped.[26]

— 1 Lafayette Co., July 19. Drowning; male, 86, slipped off levee into Missouri River.[27]

— 1 Lafayette Co., July 29. Drowning; male, 30; attempted to cross flooded bridge entry ramp.[28]

— 2 Lawson vicinity, Ray County, July 1. Flash flood swept car into Coon Branch Creek.[29]

— 1 Lexington, July 29. Drowning; male, 35, rode his bike over a bridge into floodwaters.[30]

— 1 Prairie Home vicinity, Cooper County, June 6. Female, 69, swept off low water bridge.[31]

— 1 St. Charles, July 6. Drowning; female, 72; car she was in went into floodwater.[32]

Nebraska ( 2)

— 2 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 1 Loup River ~Genoa, June 24-25. Farmer/rancher drowned in overflow pit looking for cattle.[33]

— 1 Plattsmouth vic., July 14. Drowning; boating accident in flood waters near Plattsmouth.[34]

North Dakota ( 2)

— 2 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 1 Linton, Emmons Co., July 1. Drowning; female, when vehicle attempted to cross spillway.[35]

South Dakota ( 3)

— 3 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 2 State. Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

— 1 State. The News, Frederick MD. “Floods Knock Out Water…for Des Moines.” 7-12-1993.

— 1 Dell Rapids ~Big Sioux Riv., July 4. Drowning; male drove car into flood water; closed road.[36]

— 1 Milbank area, Grant County, July 17-18. Male; pickup truck hit washout, swept away.[37]

Wisconsin ( 1)

— 1 State. Flood-related. Associated Press. “Flood toll.” Joplin Globe, MO, 8-22-1993, p. 10B.

— 1 Baraboo area, Sauk County, July 17-18. Car lifted by flash flood current, boy, 12, drowns.[38]

Narrative Information — General

Center for Environmental Sciences: “In the late summer of 1993 the Mississippi River and its tributaries in the upper basin rose to levels not seen in more than one hundred and thirty years. The discharge at St. Louis was measured at more than one million cubic feet per second. The weather situation that led to these floods was remarkably similar to that of the floods of 1927 and 1973, only worse. High winter snow melts were followed by heavy summer rainfalls caused by a low-pressure trough that stalled over the Midwest, because it was blocked by a stationary high-pressure ridge that formed over the East Coast of the United States. The low-pressure system drew moist air from the Gulf of Mexico that met the cold air from the eastern high-pressure ridge, initiating heavy rains for much of the summer. The rivers continued to rise until August, when they reached unprecedented flood heights. The discharge of the Mississippi was the highest recorded, and the height of the water was even greater because all the levees that had been built restricted the water from spreading laterally, and caused the water to rise more rapidly than it would have without the levees in place. More than two thirds of all the levees in the Upper Mississippi River basin were breached, overtopped, or damaged by the floods of 1993. Forty eight people died in the 1993 floods, and 50,000 homes were damaged or destroyed. Total damage costs are estimated at more than 20 billion dollars.” (Center for Environmental Sciences, St Louis Univ. “Mississippi…River Floods.”)

FEMA: “The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was among the most devastating natural disasters in our nation’s history. The National Weather Service ranks this flood as one of the greatest ever to have hit the United States.

“The flooding started in late May 1993—10 years ago—and lasted until September of that year. In some places the floodwaters didn’t subside until October. More than a thousand levees in the Midwest failed or were overtopped as flooding exceeded the presumed “worst-case” design specifications. At 600 monitoring points in the Midwest, rivers were above flood stage during this event.

“Nine states were affected: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Fifty people lost their lives. Fifty-four thousand people were left homeless and needed emergency shelter or extended temporary housing. Fifty thousand homes were destroyed or damaged, and 75 communities were completely under water. According to a nationally commissioned study[39][1], property damages ranged between $12 and $16 billion. When economic losses are added, the total is much higher.

“The effects on transportation and commerce from the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 were staggering. For almost 2 months, barge traffic along the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers was at a standstill as was railroad traffic in virtually all of the Midwest. From Davenport, Iowa, downstream to St. Louis, Missouri, bridges along the Mississippi River were out of commission or inaccessible. It was the same story along the Missouri River. The 1993 Midwest Flood shut down 10 commercial airports. The estimated federal response and recovery costs exceeded $4.2 billion in direct federal assistance. The federal government also made disaster loans totaling $621 million to individuals and businesses.” (FEMA. The 1993 Great Midwest Flood: Voices 10 Years Later. 2003, xiii.)

Greatriver.com: “1993 Mississippi Flood Chronology.

“March 10. The National Weather Service predicts below normal precipitation for the summer: “but above average rainfall could mean flooding, given soil saturation, spring snow depths, and normal spring rains.”

“June 10. The first 8” rainstorms begin in Dakotas, Wisconsin and Minnesota.

“June 20. The first dam bursts, submerging 100 homes to their rooftops on the Black River in Western Wisconsin. The upper 200 miles of the Mississippi River are closed to river traffic. Locks and Dams are not operating.

“July 5. The bridge at Keokuk closes.

“July 10. The bridge closes at Fort Madison, Iowa, which has experienced rain for 54 of 58 days. 830 miles of Mississippi River are closed to boat traffic between Cairo, Illinois and St. Paul, Minnesota. Over 100 rivers feeding into the Mississippi River flood by July 14. Unprecedented high-water on the Missouri River, Des Moines River, Illinois, Iowa, Skunk, Rock and Raccoon rivers (all tributaries of the Mississippi River) promote the massive flooding of the Mississippi River.

“July 16. The last Quincy, Illinois, bridge is closed, leaving no bridge between Alton, Illinois and Burlington, Iowa. The Mississippi River is flooded to seven miles inland.

“July 24. The Mississippi River at Quincy crests at a record 32 feet.

“August 2. The Mississippi River crests at 49.7 feet in St. Louis, Missouri. Eleven times the volume of Niagara Falls is flowing under Eads Bridge; enough to fill Busch stadium every 65 seconds.

“August 24. The Mississippi River locks reopen to commercial river traffic.

“August 30. The Des Moines River floods again, after another 10 inches of rain falls. The Mississippi River stays open.” (Greatriver.com. “Statistics, Stories…Chronology…Great Miss. River Flood of 1993.” 1996.)

History.com: “On this day in 1993, the levee holding back the flooding Mississippi River at Kaskaskia, Illinois, ruptures, forcing the town’s people to flee on barges. The Mississippi flood of 1993 caused $18 billion in damages and killed 52 people.

“From June through August 1993, the midwestern United States received far more rainfall than normal, particularly in the northern region, where water feeds into both the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. The unusually heavy rainfall led to severe flooding, particularly along the Illinois and Missouri shores. In all, more than 1,000 levees burst in late July.

“The incident at Kaskaskia was the most dramatic event of the flood. The town, virtually an island, was protected by a levee that the town attempted to shore up even after the bridge connecting the town to the riverside was wiped out by the rising river. At 9:48 a.m., the levee broke, leaving the people of Kaskaskia with no escape route other than two Army Corp of Engineers barges. By 2 p.m., the entire town was underwater.

“When the Quincy, Illinois, levee broke, there was no way to cross the Mississippi River for 250 miles north of St. Louis. In Grafton, Illinois, flood waters reached two stories high. Other towns had better luck– in St. Genevieve, Missouri, the entire town turned out to raise the levee. Prisoners were even brought in to assist the effort. The river crested at a record 49 feet, just two feet below the improved levee.

“The flood inundated 1 million acres of prime farm land and wreaked havoc on the area’s economy. Miles of wheat fields were too saturated to harvest that season. In addition, the herbicides from the farms washed down the river and severely damaged fish farms in Louisiana. Many other people lost their jobs when barge traffic on the river was suspended for two months.” History.com. This Day in History, July 22, 1993. “Kaskaskia is Inundated by Flood of `93.”)

Johnson, Homes and Waite (USGS): “….The Great Flood of 1993 began in early June with saturated soils and streams filled to capacity across the upper Midwest. Runoff from the ensuing persistent heavy rains of June, July, and August filled the streams and river channels. Flooding began on rivers in Minnesota and Wisconsin and eventually to the Mississippi River, cresting at St. Louis on July 12 of about 43 feet, equaling the previous stage of record. The Missouri River crested at 48.87 feet at Kansas City on July 27. This crest moved down the Missouri River setting new records at Boonville, Jefferson City, Hermann, St. Charles, and other locations. This record flow added to the already full Mississippi River just north of St. Louis, and resulted in another record crest of the Mississippi River at St. Louis on August 1^st of 49.58 feet, and record flow of over 1 million cubic feet per second…” (Johnson, Holmes, Waite. The Great Flood of 1993 on the Upper Mississippi River – 10 Years Later (USGS Information Sheet). 1993, p. 2-3)

NWS: “Uniquely extreme weather and hydrologic conditions led to the flood of 1993. The stage was set in 1992 with a wet fall which resulted in above normal soil moisture and reservoir levels in the Missouri and Upper Mississippi River basins. The Great Flood of 1993 was wide spread covering nine states and 400,000 square miles, and lasting at some locations for nearly 200 days.

“These conditions were followed by persistent weather patterns that produced storms over the same locations. Their persistent, repetitive nature and aerial extent throughout the late spring and summer, bombarded the Upper Midwest with voluminous rainfall amounts. Some areas received more than 4 feet of rain during the period. During June through August 1993, rainfall totals surpassed 12 inches across the eastern Dakotas, southern Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Wisconsin, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Many locations in the nine-state area experienced rain on 20 days or more in July, compared to an average of 8-9 days with rain. There was measurable rain in parts of the upper Mississippi basin on every day between late June and late July. The persistent, rain-producing weather pattern in the Upper Midwest, often typical in the spring but not summer, sustained the almost daily development of rainfall during much of the summer.

“From May through September of 1993, major and/or record flooding occurred across North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Fifty flood deaths occurred, and damages approached $15 billion. Hundreds of levees failed along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.

“Transportation was severely impacted. Barge traffic on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers was stopped for nearly 2 months. Bridges were out or not accessible on the Mississippi River from Davenport, Iowa, downstream to St. Louis, Missouri.

“In early July, Iowa was hit with numerous record rainfalls. Storm totals of up to 8 inches were again common. Record flooding occurred on the Skunk, Iowa, and Des Moines Rivers. The city of Des Moines, Iowa, was particularly hard hit by flooding on July 9th. The flow from these rivers combined with already near-record flows on the Mississippi River to push the stage at St. Louis up to a new record high stage of 47 feet on July 20th.” (National Weather Service. The Great Flood of 1993 (webpage). Quad Cities, IA/IL, Davenport, IA: NWS, NOAA. Not dated.)

New York Times, 2011: “From May through September of 1993, the Midwest suffered record flooding, resulting in the deaths of at least 50 people and damages approaching $15 billion. Hundreds of levees failed on the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers in nine states: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin and Illinois.

“The flood was one of the worst American natural disasters, and its magnitude was overwhelming. According to the National Weather Service, about 600 river forecast points were above flood stage at the same time, and nearly 150 major rivers and tributaries were affected.

“After it was over, governments at all levels acted to try to limit development in flood plains, and Washington spent billions of dollars relocating residents from these areas. But as pressure grew from agriculture and from housing developers, especially in the exurbs of cities like St. Louis, the regulations and guidelines were eroded and bypassed in subsequent years.” (New York Times. “Great Flood of 1993.” May 28, 2011.)

NOAA: “The costliest flood in U. S. history, huge stretches of the Missouri River (from Pipe Stem Reservation, North Dakota to St. Louis) and the Upper Mississippi River (from Minneapolis to St. Louis) overflowed their banks due to heavy rainfall, claimed 48 lives and caused nearly $18 billion in damage. More than 15 million acres across nine states were inundated, prompting 54,000 people to evacuate. Observations found that 95 points along the two rivers exceeded previous floods of record, many by 6 feet or more. Nearly 500 points along the rivers and tributary systems exceeded flood stage at some time during the event, and although the most intense flooding occurred from June to August, some areas remained above flood stage for five straight months.” (NOAA. “NOAA’s Top U.S. Weather, Water and Climate Events of the 20^th Century.”)

USGS: “August 1, 2003, is the 10th anniversary of the “Flood of 1993,” referred to by many as the “Great Flood” or “Record Flood of 1993.” The Great Flood of 1993 constituted the most costly and devastating flood to ravage the United States in modern history. Levees were broken, farmland, town, and transportation routes were destroyed, thousands of people were forced to abandon their homes, and 47 people died as a direct result of the flood.

“The Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, reported that the flood caused enormous human suffering. At least 75 towns were completely inundated, some of which have not been rebuilt. The Great Flood of 1993 inundated more than 20 million acres in nine states. Approximately 54,000 people had to be evacuated from flooded areas at some time during the flood, and approximately 50,000 homes were destroyed or damaged. Losses were estimated at 15 to 20 billion dollars.” (USGS, Missouri Water Science Center. The Great Flood of 1993. 1-18-2013 modification.)

Weather Channel: “The Mississippi River begins at Lake Itasca in Minnesota and flows south more than 2,000 miles to the Gulf of Mexico….

“There has not been a flood in recent American history that was as devastating as the great flood that affected the upper and middle Mississippi Valley from late June to mid-August 1993. Record flooding affected the Mississippi River and most of its tributaries from Minnesota to Missouri.

“The floods were caused by events which developed as early as the Fall of 1992. At that time, soil moisture levels in the central United States were already high. Winter rain and snow contributed to the nearly saturated soil conditions, so that spring precipitation and snowmelt – normally able to soak into the ground – could only run off into streams and rivers.

“By June 1st of 1993, rivers were running high as a persistent upper level atmospheric pattern developed over the central US. A trough at high levels of the atmosphere became established over the interior West. Meanwhile, southerly low level winds directed a rich flow of moist air from the Gulf of Mexico into the Midwest. Upper level disturbances riding eastward from the western trough encountered the moisture-laden air, spawning drenching thunderstorms. Wave after wave of these storms rumbled across the already soaked Mississippi River basin from June through August. By the end of summer, some locations had received over 30 inches of rain – nearly 200% of normal.

“Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri were hardest hit. At St. Louis, the river crested at 49.6 feet – over 19 feet above flood stage, and more than six feet above the old record set in 1973. The Mississippi remained over flood stage at St. Louis for over two months.

“Farther, north, record flooding occurred on the Des Moines River, a tributary of the Mississippi. At one point flooding disabled a major water plant, and Des Moines, Iowa, a city of nearly 200,000 people, was without safe drinking water.

“Transportation and industry along the Mississippi was disrupted for months. Damages to surface and river transportation in the region were the worst ever incurred in the United States.

“Over 1,000 of the 1,300 levees designed to hold back flood waters failed, though major cities along the rivers, like St. Louis, were protected from flooding by massive flood walls.

“Over 70,000 people were displaced by the floods. Nearly 50,000 homes were damaged or destroyed and 52 people died. Over 12,000 square miles of productive farmland were rendered useless. Damage was estimated between $15-20 billion.” (Weather Channel. “The Mississippi River Flood of 1993.” No date/1995-2011 copyright…)

Webley: “Date: May-October 1993.

“Significance: With more than $15 billion in damages, the flood was the second costliest on record; 50 flood-related deaths.

“Holmes says: In St. Louis, Missouri, the waters stayed at flood stage for 81 consecutive days. This is the flood that came and stayed forever. That’s the thing that sticks in my mind — that it lasted such a long time. I was young in my career at that point — I had been working as a hydrologist for only seven or eight years. I was out working on that flood for what seemed like forever.” (Webley, Kayla and Robert Holmes (USGS). “Top 10 Historic U.S. Floods.” Time.)

Illinois

NCDC Storm Data: “The Great Flood of 1993 along the Mississippi River Valley affected Illinois from East Dubuque to Cairo. As June ended and July began, the Mississippi River continued to rise. The river was above flood stage at most locations for the entire month of July. Record crests were reached all along the Illinois border. Significant flooding also occurred along many of the Illinois tributaries of the Mississippi, including the lower Rock River, the lower Illinois River, the Big Muddy River and the Kaskaskia River. The Rock River at Joslin and Moline was still about a foot above flood stage on the last day of July.

“On July 9, the Mississippi River at the Quad Cities reached 22.6 feet. This broke the old record of 22.5 feet set in 1965. River stage records from 1973 along the Mississippi River from Quincy south were shattered during this flood….” (National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 48.)

Iowa

Zogg: “Iowa Flood #1 – The Great Flood of 1993…Description and Impacts. The Great Flood of 1993 is considered by many to be one of the most defining natural disasters in Iowa history. Flooding resulted in 17 fatalities and around $2.7 billion in damage (nearly $4.5 billion in 2013

inflation-adjusted dollars). Over 10,000 people were evacuated from their homes and 21,000 homes were damaged — many destroyed.

“During the summer of 1993 some locations saw rain each day for 130 consecutive days. Some areas flooded more than five times. Agricultural yields dropped by 62 percent. Each of Iowa’s 99 counties was declared a Federal Disaster Area. When President Clinton surveyed the Des Moines area flooding on July 14th he stated “I have never seen anything on this scale before.”

(Zogg, Jeff (Senior Hydrologist, National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, Des Moines, IA. The Top Five Iowa Floods. March 2014, p. 6 of 24.)

Minnesota

NCDC Storm Data: “The Flood 0f 1993 began first in Minnesota, within the Minnesota River basin and along the Mississippi River, just below its confluence with the Minnesota River. A good portion of southern Minnesota received over 200 percent of normal precipitation throughout the month of June. From June 15^th to 19^th, Marshall (Lyon County) received nearly 9.00 inches of rain with many southern Minnesota location reporting from 6.00 to as much as 8.00 inches of rain. With soils near saturation and rivers and streams running bankful from May’s rains, much of June’s rainfall contributed directly to flooding….” (National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993. p. 129.)

Missouri

CDC: “Public health surveillance documented the impact of flood-related morbidity following the floods in the midwestern United States during the summer of 1993. Because of extensive flooding of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, the Missouri Department of Health (MDH) initiated surveillance to monitor flood-related mortality. This report summarizes epidemiologic information about deaths in Missouri that resulted from riverine flooding and flash flooding during the summer and fall of 1993.

“To identify flood-related deaths, CDC and MDH telephoned and obtained epidemiologic information from medical examiners and coroners (ME/Cs) in the 71 disaster-declared counties and in St. Louis (1990 combined population: 4,166,122) and contacted coroners of 24 counties adjacent to disaster-affected areas (1990 combined population: 435,127). A flood-related death was defined as a death resulting from an event that occurred after June 28 (when flash floods began to occur and the potential threat of riverine flooding was recognized by the State Emergency Management Agency) and would not have happened — given the information provided by ME/Cs — had the floods not occurred. Summer Flood-Related Mortality.

“From July 1 through August 31, ME/Cs from disaster-declared counties classified 27 deaths as flood-related. Decedents’ ages ranged from 9 years to 88 years (mean: 37.8 years); 18 (67%) were male. No flood-related deaths were reported in adjacent counties.

“Of the 27 deaths, 21 were directly related to the floods and resulted from drowning; six were indirectly related to the floods (i.e., flood-related activity with no direct physical contact with flood water). Thirteen of the 27 deaths were motor-vehicle-related (i.e., associated with operating or riding in a motor vehicle). Of the 16 (59%) deaths directly related to flash flooding, 14 resulted from drowning; of these, eight deaths occurred in four separate motor-vehicle-related incidents. Of the 11 (41%) deaths directly related to riverine flooding, seven resulted from drowning; of these, three deaths occurred in separate motor-vehicle-related incidents. Of the six deaths indirectly related to the floods, two each were attributed to electrocutions that occurred during cleaning efforts in or while reentering a flooded residence or business, stress-induced cardiac arrests, and trauma from motor-vehicle crashes in which usual traffic patterns were diverted because of rising water.

“Of the 21 drownings, 10 were associated with recreational activities. Six drownings occurred in one incident when a flash flood inundated a cave in which the victims were exploring, and four drownings occurred in separate incidents associated with riverine flooding. Fall Flood-Related Mortality.

“Flooding from heavy rains that occurred periodically from late September through early November contributed to 16 additional deaths: 14 were motor-vehicle-related, and two occurred when rising waters from the Missouri River flooded homes. Four deaths were associated with the Missouri River and 12 with smaller rivers or creeks. Reported by: HD Donnell, Jr, MD, State Epidemiologist, R Hamm, MD, Office of Epidemiology, Missouri Dept of Health. Emergency Response and Coordination Group, and Disaster Assessment and Epidemiology Section, Health Studies Br, Div of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC.” (CDC. “Flood-Related Mortality–Missouri, 1993.” Dec 10, 1993)

City of Kansas City: “Flood – July 1993. Known as the Great Midwest Flood this disaster reached across the heartland including the Kansas City area. Throughout the Midwest flood waters wreaked havoc destroying whole towns, homes, businesses, farm lands, and taking lives. In Kansas City, flash floods inundated Southwest Boulevard flooding dozens of business and both Kemper Arena and the American Royal building had flood water in them. Over 50 people nationwide were killed in the flood including 2 in Kansas City. The total cost was estimated at $23.1 billion nationwide with $18 million sustained in Kansas City.” (City of Kansas City, MO. Emergency Management History (website). “Disasters.” Accessed 1-3-2016.)

Chronological

July 12, The News, Frederick, MD: “Des Moines, Iowa (AP) – Rising flood waters knocked out the water system in Des Moines and left thousands in the city without electricity as the out-of-control Mississippi and its tributaries swallowed more land across the Midwest. Downtown Des Moines was closed for business today because of the weekend flooding by the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers. A water

treatment plant serving about 250,000 people in the Des Moines area was forced to shut down Sunday when floodwaters rose past its 15-foot dikes. City officials said it might take a month to restore water service. Water was trucked to distribution points in the meantime. “It may be some tune before we do some laundry,” said Des Moines Mayor John “Pat” Dorrian said today. “But we will have adequate drinking water.”

“Seven electric substations also were inundated, affecting up to 30,000 people before much utility service was restored. About 4,000 customers still lacked power this morning. Full restoration could take a week, officials said. “I’ve never seen anything of this magnitude,” said Gov. Terry Branstad, whose official residence also was without water or power. “The old-timers I’ve talked to say that they don’t ever remember seeing anything of this magnitude.”

“Flooding along the Mississippi and other rivers has forced more than 30,000 people from their homes and caused 18 deaths since late last month. Officials estimate crop and property damage at more than $2 billion in South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois and Missouri.

“The White House extended federal disaster relief Sunday to 44 more counties in Missouri, bringing the total region-wide to 132. Vice President Al Gore planned to tour the waterlogged St. Louis area today. Several hundred people in south St. Louis were asked Sunday to voluntarily leave their homes as another Mississippi tributary, the River Des Peres, continued to rise. The water was expected to soon reach a level that would flood basements and low-lying areas. Officials said utilities would be shut off tonight and police and the National Guard would begin patrolling the evacuated areas.

“Forecasters predicted another two days of fairly heavy rain in the upper Midwest before the weather begins to dry out midweek. But so much rain has already fallen that experts say flooding could continue to the end of August.

“Residents of Des Moines, the state’s largest city with more than 190,000 residents, and eight suburbs scrambled to buy bottled water Sunday, but found many stores were closed because of the power outage. By afternoon, National Guard troops had set up 29 water distribution points around the city. Water was being hauled from as far away as Omaha, Neb., 125 miles to the west. People were allowed up to 2 gallons each if they brought their own containers. A more liberal giveaway was planned for today. A hotline was set up for deliveries to the elderly and disabled….”

Flood Stats:

“Illinois: Deaths, 1.

Estimated crop loss: More than $160 million.

Number of evacuations: 10,000.

Acreage flooded: More than 500,000 acres of cropland.

Number of floodwalls or levees breached: 2 levees breached.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): 26 state disaster areas, 12 federal disaster areas.

“Iowa: Deaths, 0.

Estimated property and crop damage: $1 billion, including at least $21 million damage to homes, $3 million to businesses, $5.5 million for temporary housing.

Number of evacuations: At least 6,000 people.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): 51 state disaster areas, 11 counties declared federal disaster areas.

“Minnesota: Deaths, 3.

Estimated property damage: $8 million to public property. No figure available for private property.

Estimated crop loss: $400 million – Number of homes damaged: About 10,000.

Acreage flooded: 2.6 million.

Number of floodwalls or levees breached: None.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): 23 federal. Nine counties are still being assessed.

“Missouri: Deaths 13

Estimated property damage: $500 million to $1 billion.

Estimated crop loss: Tens of millions of dollars.

Number of evacuations: At least 14,000 statewide.

Number of homes damaged: At least 5,000 homes damaged by floods.

Number of floodwalls or levees breached: more than 100 breaks in levees along Missouri River. Twenty-five levees breached or topped on Mississippi.

Number of counties declared disaster areas: five federal disaster areas.

“Nebraska: Deaths, 0

Estimated property damage: At least $2 million.

Number of evacuations: More than 100 homes.

Acreage flooded: Thousands.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): Three declared state disaster areas.

“South Dakota: Deaths, 1

Estimated property damage: $8.1 million (public property only).

Estimated crop loss: $572.4 million.

Number of evacuations: Statewide estimate unavailable, but 2,000 people in Madison on July 3.

Number of homes damaged: 960,10 destroyed.

Acreage flooded: More than 3 million acres of farmland.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): 17 counties declared state disaster areas; 33 counties as state agricultural emergency areas.

“Wisconsin: Deaths. 0.

Estimated property and crop damage: $258 million.

Number of homes damaged: More than 1,500.

Number of counties declared disaster areas (state or federal): 37 eligible for both state and federal disaster aid.”

(The News, Frederick MD. “Floods Knock Out Water…for Des Moines.” 7-12-1993.)

July 27: “Kansas City, Mo. (AP) – Thousands of businesses and homeowners put sandbags at their doors, boarded up their windows and cleared out as the Missouri and Kansas rivers closed in, both of them building toward a crest today….

“The Kansas River, which converges with the Missouri at Kansas City, was expected to crest at 55 feet this morning – well above the flood stage of 33 feet and close to the top of a 57-foot-high levee. The Missouri was expected to crest tonight at a record 49.5 feet, 17 feet over flood stage and just below the flood walls, which are about 52 feet high….

“No immediate evacuations were ordered in Kansas City, Mo. About 3,500 people were evacuated last night from Armourdale, a low-lying residential and commercial neighborhood in Kansas City, Kan., across the Missouri River. Water crept into mostly empty Armourdale before daybreak….

“Flooding across the Midwest had been blamed for at least 42 deaths. Damage has been put at more than $10 billion. About 50 miles north of Kansas City, Mo., 85,000 St. Joseph-area residents remained without water for a fourth day. Floodwaters knocked out the city’s water treatment plant on Saturday. Officials said the plant may not be fixed until Friday or later….

“Missouri looked to Iowa for advice. After floodwaters knocked out Des Moines’ water treatment plant, some 250,0000 people went 12 days without running water until last week….

“South of St. Louis along the Mississippi…The river is expected to crest at Ste. Genevieve next week at 48 feet. Volunteers worked to build up the levees to 50 feet.” (The Capital, Annapolis, MD. “K.C. Braces Against Deluge.” July 27, 1993, p. A2.)

Dec 31, AP: “The Great Flood of ’93 — with its death, destruction and distress that tested Midwest mettle in nine states — was named the top news story of the year in a survey of news executives by The Associated Press….

“(1) Flood — The numbers only told part of the story: 48 dead, more than $10 billion in damage, farmlands twice the size of New Jersey inundated, 100 rivers over flood stage and 15 waterways at all-time high levels, 70,000 people displaced, 421 counties declared disaster areas, 50 towns ravaged, 70 percent of the region’s levees overwhelmed, barge traffic grounded, the Mississippi at St. Louis over flood stage for a record 80 days.

“But for all the losses, there were also heroic struggles by volunteer sandbaggers to hold back the roiling rivers. The town of Valmeyer, Ill., voted to relocate on higher ground while others debated the wisdom of trying to control the Mississippi behind floodwalls.” (Associated Press). “Midwest Flood, Waco Fire Voted Top Stories of 1993.” 12-31- 1993.)

Sources

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Associated Press, Keithsburg, Ill. “Mighty Mississippi continues rampage.” Hays Daily News, KS. 7-8-1993, p. 8. Accessed 3-22-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=135058496&sterm

Associated Press, Prairie Du Chien, Wis. “Mississippi River above flood stage.” Salina Journal, KS, 6-30-1993, p. 1. Accessed 3-22-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=138886571&sterm

Associated Press, Peruque, Mo. “Rains feed Mississippi flood.” Hays Daily News, KS, 7-6-1993, p. 7. Accessed 3-22-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=143661661&sterm

Associated Press, St. Louis, MO. “Rest from rain brief relief for soggy Midwestern residents.” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 7-29-1993, p. 8. Accessed 3-23-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=259697589&sterm

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Associated Press, Lawson, MO. “Two teens drown while crossing creek.” The Examiner, Independence, MO, 7-2-1993, p. 2A. Accessed 3-22-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=295473211&sterm

Burt, Christopher C. and Mark Stroud. Extreme Weather: A Guide & Record Book. W. W. Norton & Co., 2004, 304 pages. Google preview accessed 1-1-2014 at: http://books.google.com/books?id=NuP7ATq9nWgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Flood-Related Mortality–Missouri, 1993.” MMWR [Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report], Vol. 42, No. 48, pp. 941-943. 12-10-1993. Accessed at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00022339.htm

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Galloway, Gerald E. Jr. Learning from the Mississippi Flood of 1993: Impacts, Management Issues, and Areas for Research. Paper, U.S. – Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts and Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia (Italy), November, 1995, 29 pages. Accessed 3-23-2016 at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/ce/facultystaff/salas/us-italy/papers/12galloway.pdf

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History.com. This Day in History, Disaster, July 22, 1993. “Kaskaskia is Inundated by Flood of `93.” Assessed 12-07-2008 at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=tdihArticleCategory&displayDate=07/22&categoryId=disaster

Illinois Association for Floodplain and Stormwater Management News. “`Happy’ Anniversary – 10 Years After the Midwest Flood of 1993.” Fall 2003, 10 pages. Accessed 3-23-2016 at: http://www.illinoisfloods.org/documents/newsletters/03_newsletter_fall.pdf

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Larson, Lee. “The Great USA Flood of 1993.” Paper presented at IAHS Conference Destructive Water: Water-Caused Natural Disasters – Their Abatement and Control, Anaheim, CA, June 24-28, 1996. Accessed at: http://www.nwrfc.noaa.gov/floods/papers/oh_2/great.htm

Missouri Department of Health. “Focus…1993 Elderly Mortality Increase Not Related to Flood.” Missouri Monthly Vital Statistics, Vol. 28, No. 10, Dec 1994. Jefferson City, MO: State Center for Health Statistics. (3-29-2016 email attachment to Wayne Blanchard from Craig Ward, State Registrar, Section of Epidemiology for Public Health Practice, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services.

National Climatic Data Center. “Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters 1980-1994.” Table 4. NOAA, 8-4-1997. Accessed at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/techrpts/tr9403/tr9403.pdf

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and at: http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/documents/reports/1999/status_and_trends/99t001_ch15lr.pdf

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Wilkins, Lee. “Living with the Flood: Human and Governmental Responses to Real and Symbolic Risk.” Chapter 10 (pages 218-244) in: The Great Flood of 1993: Causes, impacts, and Responses. Stanley A. Changnon, editor. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996.

Zogg, Jeff (Senior Hydrologist, National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, Des Moines, IA. The Top Five Iowa Floods. March 2014. Accessed 3-23-2016 at: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/Image/dmx/hydro/HistoricalIowaFloods_Top5.pdf

[1] One normally sees the figures of 48, 50, or 52 flood deaths for the 1993 Midwest flooding (and we provide a representation of these figures and their sources below. Our fatality range is higher, reflecting the number of flood-related fatalities from the State breakouts below. Iowa shows 5-17. This reflects the fact that several sources at the time noted a total of five flood fatalities. However, a credible source – a National Weather Service member stationed in Des Moines, Iowa — writes that seventeen people died. We have, however, only been able to identify two flood-related deaths independently. Other reasons for variability amongst the reports of fatalities may, we suspect, involve more limited time frames and definitions of a flood death. Some sources, we suspect, are limited to July (when the largest percentage of deaths occurred) or to July through August (as did the CDC). Some figures, we suspect, are limited to direct deaths from drowning, and do not include electric shock deaths during repair and restoration, or stress-induced cardiac arrests, or trauma from vehicle incidents while being diverted away from flood waters.

[2] “The 500-year flood of 1993 was the worst natural disaster to ever hit the Midwest in modern times with total losses exceeding $18 billion. Nearly five dozen [60] people lost their lives. More than 75 towns were flooded…”

[3] Cites: (1) L. Wilkins. “Living with the flood: Human and governmental responses to real and symbolic risk.” Pages 218-244 in S. A. Changnon, editor. The Great Flood of 1993: Causes Consequences, and Impacts. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Inc., 1996. (2) J. M. Wright. Effect of the flood on national policy: Some achievements, major challenges remain. Pages 245-275 in S. A. Changnon, editor. The Great Flood of 1993.

[4] “Fifty flood deaths occurred.” [Not clear to us that the two electrocution deaths are included.]

[5] Cites: Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force. Report to the Administration: Floodplain Management Task Force – Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21^st Century, 1994, 191 pages.

[6] “…47 people died as a direct result of the flood.”

[7] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 49.

[8] Sent email to Iowa Dept. of Public Health, 4-3-2016 in order to try to narrow range of fatalities and gain clarity.

[9] AP. “Rest from rain brief…” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 7-29-1993, 8. Victim named as Kenneth Tille.

[10] Cedar Rapids Gazette, IA. “Ely. Accident cause not proven.” 7-9-1993, p. 1B. Notes that Johnson County Medical Examiner listed the official cause of death of the victim, identified as Vernon W. Neiderhiser, as drowning. Also noted that this was the first reported Eastern Iowa “fatality of the summer flood of 1993.” Also noted that “On a normal summer day there would have been no water where Neiderhiser drowned…” in eight feet of water.

[11] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993. p. 130. A June 30 AP article writes: “Flooding was blamed for the death of an 11-year-old girl who drowned while wading near LeCenter, Minn.”

[12] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993. p. 130.

[13] Associated Press, Peruque, Mo. “Rains feed Mississippi flood.” Hays Daily News, KS, 7-6-1993, p. 7. Notes the boy “was the third child to drown in Minnesota rivers since the flooding began.” We date as approximately July 5 because the date of the drowning was not noted, only that the boy’s body was recovered on July 5.

[14] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 150.

[15] Writes: “…the flood’s death total remains uncertain. The state of Missouri, for example, suggest that 50 Missourians died as a result of the flood, 30 of them in flash floods that were ancillary to the flooding on the Mississippi and Missouri.” In that a MO Vital Statistics document notes 49, we assume 50 to be a rounding up.

[16] “…we found 49 deaths directly related to the flood, primarily from flash flooding, motor vehicle related deaths and drownings. Six of these 49 deaths were to persons aged 70 or over.” Document provided as attachment to 3-29-2016 email from Craig Ward, State Registrar, Section of Epidemiology for Public Health Practice, Missouri Dept. of Health and Senior Services, in response to Blanchard email seeking information, in that the CDC had reported 27 fatalities and Wilkins 50. In his email Mr. Ward noted that more deaths were identified as flood related in the months following CDC report. He speculated that the Wilkins number may have just been a rounding up from 49.

[17] Writes: “Because of extensive flooding of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, the Missouri Department of Health (MDH) initiated surveillance to monitor flood-related mortality….To identify flood-related deaths, CDC and MDH telephoned and obtained epidemiologic information from medical examiners and coroners (ME/Cs) in the 71 disaster-declared counties and in St. Louis…and contacted coroners of 24 counties adjacent to disaster-affected areas… A flood-related death was defined as a death resulting from an event that occurred after June 28 (when flash floods began to occur and the potential threat of riverine flooding was recognized by the State Emergency Management Agency) and would not have happened – given the information provided by ME/Cs – had the floods not occurred…From July 1 through August 31, ME/Cs from disaster-declared counties classified 27 deaths as flood-related. Decedents’ ages ranged from 9 to 88 years (mean: 37.8 years; 18 (67%) were male. No flood-related deaths were reported in adjacent counties….Flooding from heavy rains that occurred periodically from late September through early November contributed to 16 additional deaths: 14 were motor-vehicle related, and two occurred when rising waters from the Missouri River flooded homes. Four deaths were associated with the Missouri River and 12 with smaller rivers or creeks…”

[18] We note this figure not to imply there were 23 drowning deaths, but to note that as of Aug 3, this was the toll.

[19] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 158.

[20] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 168. Notes “heavy rains quickly flooded Cliff Cave at Cliff Cave Park trapping and killing six people. River flooding in the area had already closed the park to visitors. A group of boys from a boys home and their counselors were exploring the caves when water filled the entrance and poured in through sink holes. Four boys and two counselors were killed.” The boys were from the St. Joseph’s Home for Boys. A newspaper wrote they were killed “when a flash flood swept through the cave…” (The Examiner, Independence, MO. “State pursues inquiry into flood deaths.” 8-2-1993, 5A.) One of the two lost counselors was Jenny Metherd, 21, a volunteer with the church-operated home for troubled youth. (Assoc. Press, St. Louis, MO. “Family buries daughter lost in flooded cave.” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 7-29-1993, p. 8.)

[21] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 161.

[22] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 162.

[23] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 163.

[24] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 163.

[25] AP, Kansas City, MO. “The worst may be over for Kansas City.” Ottawa Herald, KS, 7-12-1993, p. 10. Victim, identified as Mark Tracey, was apparently trying to work an electric sump pump.

[26] AP, Kansas City, MO. “The worst may be over for Kansas City.” Ottawa Herald, KS, 7-12-1993, p. 10.

[27] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 158. A newspaper article, in an apparent reference to this death, writes that “…Delbert J. Hicks, 86, of Waverly, in Lafayette County, was found dead Monday evening [July 19] outside his pickup truck in 3 to 4 feet of water near a bridge over the Missouri River at Waverly…The truck apparently stalled on a flooded access road, the sheriff said.” (Independence Examiner, MO. “Officials: Worry about new rains” [From Page 1A], 7-22-1993, p. 12A.)

[28] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 158.

[29] The Examiner (J. Major and C. Wood), Independence, MO. “Storm drops a load of rain in area.” 7-1-1993, 11A. An AP article the next day identified the fatalities as Eric Warren, 20 and Jill May, 15, both of Lawson. (Associated Press. “Two teens drown while crossing creek.” The Examiner, Independence, MO, 7-2-1993, p. 2A.)

[30] The Examiner, Independence, MO. “Drowning victim’s body found in river.” Aug 3, 1993, 10A. Writes that “The body of a Lexington man was recovered from the Missouri River on Monday, five days after he rode his bike over a bridge into floodwaters and drowned. John Friend, 35, became the state’s 23^rd flood death when he drowned July 29. His body was found about 1 mile downstream of the bridge that carries Missouri 13 over the river.”

[31] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993. p. 130. Notes the woman was swept off low water bridge “on County Road W between Prairie Home and California…Flash flooding, described as a wall of water, swept the van into the swollen creek. They found the woman about 5 miles away from the bridge.” This was not one of the 27 flood-related deaths noted by the CDC in that their time-frame for loss of life was July 1-Aug 31.

[32] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 160.

[33] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1993, p. 160.

[34] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, p. 174.

[35] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 8, August 1993, p. 99. Notes “When the attempt was unsuccessful, the occupants got out of their vehicle. One of the occupants lost her footing, fell into the creek [Beaver Creek], and drowned.”

[36] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 257.

[37] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 261.

[38] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993. p. 292.

[39][1] Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21st Century, a report of the Interagency

Floodplain Management Review Committee to the Administration Floodplain Management Task Force,

Washington, DC, June 1994.

20th Century

1993 — April 19, FBI & ATF attack Branch Davidian Compound, fire near Waco, TX– 75

lornajarrettblanchard April 22, 1993

— 76 Smith, J. B. “Scholars tackle ‘cult’ questions 20 years after…” Wacotrib.com, 4-13-2013.

— 75 NYT Learning Network. “Feb. 28, 1993. Federal Agents Rain Religious…” 2-28-2012.

–>70 CBS News. “What Really Happened at Waco: Six Years Latter Controversy…” 1-25-2000

— 47 National Fire Protection Association. Key Dates in Fire History. 1996.

Narrative Information

NYT Learning Network: “After the raid [Feb 28, 1993],[1] the F.B.I. conducted a siege of the compound where more than 90 people remained inside, hoping to force Mr. Koresh into surrendering. F.B.I. negotiators were able to persuade Mr. Koresh to release children from the compound in exchange for broadcasting his messages over the radio; in all, 21 children were released. The F.B.I. determined that the children had been sexually abused and that the remaining children were being abused, though there was little evidence to support this.

“As the siege wore on, the F.B.I. became divided over its tactics. Some decided that more aggressive tactics and displays of force were necessary — including the destruction of the Davidians’ cars with F.B.I. tanks and the playing of loud music at night — without first consulting with negotiators, who believed that such tactics undermined their talks.

“Ultimately, the F.B.I. leadership decided that it was necessary to end the siege with an assault on the compound. The assault was justified on the grounds that it would prevent further abuse of children and prevent a possible mass suicide. On April 19, F.B.I. tanks knocked holes in the compound’s walls and pumped in tear gas, but the Davidians remained huddled inside. At noon, about six hours into the assault, several fires broke out in the compound, engulfing the building and crushing many of the Davidians inside. Mr. Koresh and 74 other Davidians, including 25 children, were killed.

“The F.B.I. came under tremendous criticism for its handling of the siege and assault. A House investigation called Attorney General Janet Reno’s decision to authorize the assault “premature, wrong and highly irresponsible.” The F.B.I. contended that the Davidians started the fires, though in 1999 the organization admitted that there was a chance the F.B.I. was responsible.”

Smith: “Their apocalypse came and went on a Monday afternoon, 20 years ago this week. By the time David Koresh and 75 followers met their fiery end on a prairie near Waco on April 19, 1993, the worst possible image of Branch Davidians was branded on the public mind….

“Predictions that the Mount Carmel complex would be ‘another Jonestown’ seemed vindicated as the incinerated remains of men, women and children were collected from the rubble of the inferno. Soon after the 51-day federal siege ended, a Newsweek poll found that three-quarters of Americans supported the FBI’s operation, which culminated with tanks piercing compound walls and tear-gassing the inhabitants, including infants and small children….

“The ATF in May 1992 began investigating Koresh’s purchases of high-powered firearms and grenades. Among their first contacts in building the case were Branch Davidian defectors such as Marc Breault, who claimed that Koresh would never surrender peacefully and warned of the possibility of mass suicide, according to Wessinger’s 2000 book, “How the Millennium Comes Violently.” Breault was among the first to raise alarms about Koresh, including his claim that all women in the group belonged to him as the chosen Messiah. The ATF began an undercover operation at the compound near Elk and concluded that Koresh was stockpiling illegal weapons there.

“On Feb. 28, 1993, 100 ATF agents swarmed the compound in a military-style assault to serve a warrant on weapons violation charges, despite officials’ knowledge that Koresh’s group had been tipped off. The assault turned into a 45-minute firefight that killed four agents and six Branch Davidians.

“A 51-day siege followed, under the control of the FBI. In the first several weeks of the siege, FBI negotiators secured the release of 35 people, including 21 children.

“But in the meantime, FBI officials on the scene were split in their approach, said Gary Noesner, the FBI’s retired chief negotiator, who oversaw negotiations for the first 26 days…. He complains that tactical officers wanted more aggressive actions against Koresh and did things that undermined Branch Davidian leaders’ trust in the negotiating team, such as using bright lights and loudspeaker noises to inflict anxiety on the group….” (Smith, J. B. “Scholars tackle ‘cult’ questions 20 years after Branch Davidian tragedy.” Wacotrib.com, 4-13-2013.)

Sources

CBS News. “What Really Happened at Waco: Six Years Latter Controversy Continues.” 1-25-2000. Accessed 4-3-2016 at: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-really-happened-at-waco/

National Fire Protection Association. Key Dates in Fire History. 1996, Accessed 2010 at: http://www.nfpa.org/itemDetail.asp?categoryID=1352&itemID=30955&URL=Research%20&%20Reports/Fire%20statistics/Key%20dates%20in%20fire%20history&cookie%5Ftest=1

New York Times, The Learning Network. “Feb. 28, 1993. Federal Agents Rain Religious Sect in Waco.” 2-28-2012. Accessed 4-3-2016 at: http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/28/feb-28-1993-federal-agents-raid-religious-sect-in-waco/?_r=0

Smith, J. B. “Scholars tackle ‘cult’ questions 20 years after Branch Davidian tragedy.” Wacotrib.com, 4-13-2013. Accessed 4-3-2016 at: http://www.wacotrib.com/news/religion/scholars-tackle-cult-questions-years-after-branch-davidian-tragedy/article_a3fa463e-d1b4-5eda-b49e-95327bc276d7.html?mode=story

[1] Four ATF agents and six Davidians killed in gunfight.

20th Century

1993 — April 19, Plane Crash kills SD Governor Mickelson & party, near Zwingle, IA– 8

lornajarrettblanchard April 19, 1993

–8 AP. “Plane crash altered state’s political scene.” Huron Plainsman, SD, 12-30-1993, p. 12.

–8 Associated Press. “State mourns Mickelson.” Huron Plainsman, SD, 4-20-1993, p. 1.

–8 NTSB. Aircraft Accident Report. In-Flight Loss of Propeller Blade…, “Executive Summary”

Narrative Information

April 20: “Dubuque, Iowa (AP) — A small jet carrying South Dakota Gov. George Mickelson crashed in heavy rain on a farm near Dubuque, killing all eight aboard. The plane sheared off a farm silo and crashed through a barn, starting a fire that destroyed the building….

“The twin -engine turboprop had been headed for an emergency landing at the Dubuque airport when it struck the barn and silo about 14 miles southwest of Dubuque about 4 p.m. Monday, said Sandra Campbell, a spokeswoman at the Federal Aviation Administration regional office at Kansas City, Mo. ‘The pilot reported a lost engine and lost pressurization. The aircraft then was handed off to the Dubuque tower for clearance to land. It was the nearest location,’ Mrs. Campbell said. ‘It was cleared to land. About a minute after the last transmission, the Dubuque tower reported to the sheriff the aircraft was down on the ground,’ she said.

“The other victims were: South Dakota Economic Development Commissioner Roland Dolly, state energy Policy Commissioner Ron Reed, Sioux Falls [SD] banker Dave Birkeland, Roger Hainje, director of the Sioux Falls Development Foundation, Angus Anson of Northern States Power in Sioux Falls and two pilots from Pierre, S.D., Ron Becker and Dave Hansen.

“The plane was returning from Cincinnati, Ohio, where the governor met with officials of John Morrell and Co., said Janelle Toman, Gov. Mickelson’s press secretary. Officials of the state and the city of Sioux Falls had been concerned about the future of a plant in Sioux Falls, Toman said….

“Michelson, 52, a Republican, was elected governor of South Dakota in 1986, defeating Democrat R. Lars Herseth, a state representative. He was re-elected in 1990, defeating Democrat Bob Samuelson. Before becoming governor, Mickelson served six years in the South Dakota House, where he was speaker in 1879-80….

“Lt. Gov. Walter Dale Miller will be sworn in as South Dakota’s 28^th governor this afternoon, said governor’s spokesman Tony Mangan….” (Associated Press. “State mourns Mickelson.” Huron Plainsman, SD, 4-20-1993, p. 1.)

NTSB Executive Summary: “On April 19, 1993, at 1552 central daylight time, a Mitsubishi MU-2B-60, registered in the United States as N86SD and operated by the South Dakota Department of Transportation, as a public use airplane, collided with a silo on a farm near Zwingle, Iowa, while attempting an approach to an emergency landing at Dubuque Regional Airport, Dubuque, Iowa. The airplane was destroyed in the collision and postcrash fire. The captain, first officer, and the six passengers aboard were fatally injured. Instrument meteorological conditions existed at the time. The flight originated from Cincinnati, Ohio, at 1406, on an instrument flight rules flight plan.

“The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the fatigue cracking and fracture of the propeller hub arm. The resultant separation of the hum arm and the propeller blade damaged the engine, nacelle, wing, and fuselage, thereby causing significant degradation to aircraft performance and control that made a successful landing problematic.

“The cause of the propeller hub arm fracture was a reduction in the fatigue strength of the material because of manufacturing and time-related factors (decarburization, residual stress, corrosion, mixed microstructure, and machining/scoring marks) that reduced the fatigue resistance of the material, probably combined with exposure to higher-than-normal cyclic loads during operation of the propeller at a critical vibration frequency (reactionless mode), which was not appropriately considered during the airplane/propeller certification process.

“The safety issues in this report include the propeller hub design, certification and continuing airworthiness, and air traffic control training. Safety recommendations concerning these issues were addressed to the Federal Aviation Administration.” [p. vi.]

“….At 1540, the flightcrew reported, ‘Chicago, sierra delta, we had a decompression,’[1] then ‘Mayday, Mayday, Mayday. Six sierra delta, we’re going down here.’ The Chicago Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) controller acknowledged: ‘Roger, tell me what you need.’ The flightcrew replied. ‘The closest airport we can get to here.’ The controller informed N86SD that DBQ was 25 miles away at their 2:00 position and asked what altitude the airplane needed. The airplane’s position was actually 37 miles from DBQ. At this time, the controller was unaware of the weather at DBQ. The flightcrew responded, ‘We need to get down to our oxygen level.’ The center controller then cleared the airplane to 8,000 feet.” [p. 2.]

“About this time, other airports were considered as divert options. The controller later stated that there were smaller airports in the area but that they were uncontrolled and unmanned. She considered Maquoketa Airport, but it only had a nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) instrument approach. She considered Quad City Airport (MLI), Moline, Illinois, but believed it was farther away from the airplane than DBQ.

“At 1542:12….DBQ was about 31 miles from the airplane. Also at that time, the current weather observation for MLI (about 33 miles away from N86SD) indicated visual meteorological conditions (BMC) on the surface. Also at that time, instrument landing system (ILS)-equipped Clinton Airport (CWI), Clinton, Iowa, was 9 miles south, with a ceiling of 400 feet, and a visibility of 5 miles. The air traffic controllers involved in the emergency situation did not query their computer for the MLI surface observation, which would have been available….

“At 1544, the controller asked, ‘Can you hold altitude?’ The flightcrew responded, ‘Well, standby.’ The controller then cleared the flight to 6,000 feet. At 1545, the airplane reported difficulty holding altitude, and the controller then cleared the flight to 4,000 feet and restated the heading to join the approach course. [p. 4.]

“….On April 28, 1993, the FAA issued AD 93-09-04 concerning Hartzell Model HC-B4TN-5 propellers installed on MU-2B-60 airplanes. The purpose of the AD was ‘to prevent fatigue cracks in propeller hub arm assemblies progressing to failure, resulting in departure of the hub arm and blade, and that may result in engine separation and subsequent loss of aircraft control….’ It required that the propeller hubs on all MU-2B-60 airplanes be magnetic particle inspected with the pilot tubes removed. The AD required that the inspection be repeated at 600-hour intervals.

“On June 10, 1993, the FAA issued AD 93-12-01. This AD extended the provisions of AD 93-09-04 to Hartzell model HC-B4TN-5 propellers installed on other MU-2B airplanes….” [p. 43.]

“The air traffic control sector in which the decompression occurred was called to Coton High sector. This sector controls airplanes at and above flight level 240. Small airports are not normally depicted on the radar map used for high sectors. However, the controller working the sector (manual) position reported that to assist the radar controller, she depressed the sector boundary button to bring up additional airports that are not normally displayed on the radar screen. CWI was then displayed, as well as DBQ and MLI. Additional information can be obtained on a specific airport by the controller by typing the letters ‘A’ (meaning ‘airport information’) into the computer, then placing the cursor over the airport symbol on the screen and pressing the ‘enter’ key. Information such as airport elevation, UNICOM frequency, pilot-controlled lighting capability, runway surface, longest runway, nearest navigation aid and primary navigation aid, appear on a small display adjacent to the radar screen. This additional available information was not brought up by the controller involved in this airborne emergency.” [pp. 47-48.]

“….Pilot Decisions on Flying the Airplane. The Safety Board examined the appropriateness of the pilots’ decisions. The Board noted that the pilots initiated an emergency descent and descended down to and through 9,000 feet in a very rapid manner very likely because of the cabin depressurization. Had they attempted to arrest the descent at 12,000 feet, for example, and turned toward DBQ at the first instruction for a northerly turn from ATC, they might have had sufficient range to reach DBQ. In addition, had the crew stated the true seriousness of their situation to Coton High controllers, the controllers might have been more prone to search for a more suitable diversion airport….” [p. 62]

“The Safety Board concludes that the pilot acted in a reasonable manner in continuing the high rate of descent to lower altitudes and that once he was at lower altitudes, he continued to fly at higher airspeeds and rates of descent to gain more aerodynamic control.” [p. 63.]

“Air Traffic Control Actions. Following the loss of the propeller blade and the decompression, the flightcrew requested from the Chicago ARTCC controller vectors to the ‘closest airport we can get to…,’ at 15440:46. Four seconds later, the controller transmitted that DBQ was at the airplane’s 2:00 position and 25 miles away. DBQ was actually about 37 miles from the airplane.[2] At that time, the airplane was within 2 miles of being equidistant from MLI and DBQ and only about 9 miles from CWI. The DBQ and CWI local areas were experiencing IFR [Instrument flight Rules] weather conditions, and the MLI local area was experiencing VFR [Visual] weather conditions….

“The Safety Board believes that N86SD would have broken out of the overcast at a higher altitude if it was on a course toward MLI rather than DBQ, although N86SD was not offered this option by the controllers. This would have given the pilot more time to select a flat, open area on the ground to crash land the airplane, and the probability of flightcrew and occupant survival would have been greatly increased.” [p. 63.]

“….The Safety Board believes…that the controllers involved in this emergency should have, at some point, determined that the weather at MLI was much better than that at DBQ. Moreover, they should have been aware that SWI was much closer than either MLI or DBQ and then relayed that information to the pilots of N86SD. The air traffic control transcript revealed that an apparent lull in controller activity occurred shortly after N86SD was given the DBQ weather. This would have been a good opportunity for the controllers to identify other possible diversion airports, obtain weather sequences for one or more of these airports, and then transmit some options to the pilots of N86SD. As it happened, of the several airports in the area with instrument approach capability and weather above instrument approach minimums, the pilots were given information on only one airport, DBQ.” [p. 64.]

“Once a flight declares an emergency, the role of air traffic control reverts from one of controlling the flight to one of assisting the flight in safe recovery. Ideally, an exchange of information between the flightcrew and the controllers should have taken place to allow the safest resolution of the emergency situation. The controllers should not have hesitated to pass any potentially helpful information to the flightcrew, however sketchy that information might have been, thereby offering them the maximum number of options.

“There were also systemic shortfalls that hindered the effectiveness of the assistance that the controllers could provide N86SD. These include a lack of readily available current weather sequence reports for the controllers, and a lack of written guidance for controllers during emergency situations.” [p. 65.]

Conclusions…Findings

“….13. There was no routine of special inspection in place at the time of the accident that were designed to detect the fatigue crack that precipitated the loss of the propeller blade. Subsequent to the accident, efforts to develop a practical, nondestructive test, without the removal of the pilot tubes to detect such an anomaly, were unsuccessful.” [p. 69.]

(NTSB. Aircraft Accident Report. In-Flight Loss of Propeller Blade and Uncontrolled Collision with Terrain, Mitsubishi MU-2B-60, N86SD, Zwingle, Iowa, April 19, 1993. 11-16-1993.)

Sources

Associated Press. “Plane crash altered state’s political scene.” Huron Plainsman, SD, 12-30-1993, p. 12. Accessed 12-15-2018 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/huron-plainsman-dec-30-1993-p-12/

Associated Press. “State mourns Mickelson.” Huron Plainsman, SD, 4-20-1993, p. 1. Accessed 12-16-2018 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/huron-plainsman-apr-20-1993-p-1/

National Transportation Safety Board. Aircraft Accident Report. In-Flight Loss of Propeller Blade and Uncontrolled Collision with Terrain, Mitsubishi MU-2B-60, N86SD, Zwingle, Iowa, April 19, 1993. Washington, DC: NTSB/AAR-93/08, adopted 11-16-1993, 131 pages. Accessed 12-16-2018 at: https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Pages/AAR9308.aspx

[1] At page 68, Conclusion 4, the NTSB speculates that as part of the sequence of events initiated when the propeller hub arm on the left propeller failed, “One or more of the remaining propeller blades, and/or a released blade tip from one of the remaining propeller blades, might have contacted the fuselage, causing a cabin decompression.”

[2] Air traffic control personnel stated that the inaccuracy of the radar presentation (at the radar range setting customarily used) accounted for this 12-mile error.

20th Century

1993 – Apr-Dec, Hantavirus, esp. Native Americans, Four Corners area, NM/AZ/CO– 32

lornajarrettblanchard April 1, 1993

–>45 1993-1995. Scott, Michon. “Hantavirus Risk Maps.” NASA Earth Observatory, 2-5-2002.
— 42 LA Times. Deadly Desert Plague Left Scars on Kin of Victims: Hantavirus…” 5-29-1994.
–>40 Stumpff, Linda Moon. Hantavirus and the Navajo Nation – A Double-Jeopardy Disease.
— 32 CDC. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome – [U.S.], 1993.” MMWR, 43/3, 1-28-1994, p. 45-48.
— 27 Kohn. Encyclopedia of Plague & Pestilence. 2001, p. 360.
— 27 NYT/L.W. Altman. “Virus That Caused Deaths Among Navajos Is Isolated.” 11-21-1993.
— 26 Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague. 1994, p. 545-546 .
— 25 Grady, Denise. “Death at the Corners.” Discover Magazine, 1-18-1993.
— 22 CDC. “Update: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome – [U.S.], 1993, Figure 2. MMWR, 1993.
—<16 CDC. Update: Outbreak of Hantavirus Infection…” MMWR, 42/23, 6-18-1993, 441-443. -->16 Santa Fe New Mexican. “Official: It takes time to get virus.” 6-19-1993, p. 1.
— 13 Borowski. “The virus that rock the Four Corners reemerges.” AAAS, 1-8-2013.
— 13 By June 3. Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Navajo Nation, state under siege.” 6-3-1993, 4
— 12 CDC. “Outbreak of Acute Illness — [SW US], 1993.” MMWR, 42/22, 6-11-1993, 421-24.
— 12 By June 2. Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “It’s still a mystery; 12 dead.” 6-2-1993, p. 1.
— 12 Wikipedia. “1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak.” 9-27-2017 edit. (Cites CDC.)
— 11 By June 1 in NM & AZ. AP. “Mystery illness: Doctors search for cause.” 6-1-1993.
— 10 By May 30. Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Gallup girl dies; death toll 10.” 5-30-1993, 1.
— 10 Greenberg. Disasters: Terrorist, Natural and Man-Made. 2006, pp. 93-94.

Arizona ( 4) 11 reported cases. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
–4 AP. “‘It isn’t over, I’m afraid.’” Daily Times, Farmington, NM, 6-10-1993, p. A4.
–1 Navajo Reservation.
California ( 2)
–1 Northern CA coastal area. Ranch-hand, 29. Garrett. The Coming Plague. 1994, p. 544.
–1 Sierra Mountains. Jeanne Messier, ecology researcher, 27, working out of isolated cabin.
California/Nevada border area: ( 1)
–1 Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague. 1994, p. 544. (Female; infected mice found on property.)
Colorado ( 1)
–1 Grand Junction. April; female.
Idaho ( ?) Two reported cases. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24
Louisiana, western ( 1)
–1 Late July. Bridge inspector, 58. Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague. 1994, p. 545.
Montana ( ?) One reported case. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24
Nevada ( ?) Two reported cases. NYT. “Virus…Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p.24.
New Mexico (>8) 16 reported cases. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
–8 On or near Navajo Reservation. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
–1 April. Gallup Indian Medical Center; Navajo female, 30.
–1 May 9. Navajo reservation rural reservation clinic; young athletic female, 21.
–1 May 14. Gallup Indian Medical Ctr. Emer. Room. Navajo young man; good health.
–2 May. Previously healthy Navajo tribal members, other than two mentioned above.
–1 By May 24 six people in tribal areas had died (we note five above).
–1 July 8, Canoncito home; died University Hosp., Albuquerque; Bobby Francisco, 36.
–7 Northwestern NM in or near Navajo reservation.
North Dakota ( ?) One reported case. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
Oregon ( ?) One reported case. NYT. “Virus That Caused Deaths…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
South Dakota ( ?) Two reported cases; deaths not noted. NYT. “Virus…” 11-21-1993, p. 24.
Texas ( 1)
–1 Lufkin, East TX. Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague. 1994, p. 543-544.

Narrative Information

CDC 1994: “In June 1993, a newly recognized hantavirus was identified as the etiologic agent of an outbreak of severe respiratory illness (hantavirus pulmonary syndrome {HPS}) in the southwestern United States (1-3). Since this problem was recognized, sporadic cases have been identified from a wide geographic area in the western United States (2). This report summarizes the epidemiologic characteristics of HPS cases reported to CDC from May 1 through December 31, 1993.

“Through December 31, 53 persons with illnesses meeting the surveillance case definition of HPS (2) have been reported to CDC. Patients’ ages have ranged from 12 years to 69 years (median age: 31 years), and 32 (60%) were aged 20-39 years; 30 (57%) were male. Twenty-six (49%) were American Indians; 22 (42%), non-Hispanic whites; four (8%), Hispanic; and one (2%), non-Hispanic black. Thirty-two (60%) patients died; persons with fatal cases and persons with nonfatal cases were similar in age, sex, and race….” (CDC. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome – United States,, 1993.” MMWR, Vol. 43, No. 3, 1-28-1994.)

CDC, 2020: “In May 1993, an outbreak of an unexplained pulmonary illness occurred in the southwestern United States, in an area shared by Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Utah known as “The Four Corners”. A young, physically fit Navajo man suffering from shortness of breath was rushed to a hospital in New Mexico and died very rapidly.

“While reviewing the results of the case, medical personnel discovered that the young man’s fiancée had died a few days before after showing similar symptoms, a piece of information that proved key to discovering the disease. As Dr. James Cheek of the Indian Health Service (IHS) noted, ‘I think if it hadn’t been for that initial pair of people that became sick within a week of each other, we never would have discovered the illness at all’.

“An investigation combing the entire Four Corners region was launched by the New Mexico Office of Medical Investigations (OMI) to find any other people who had a similar case history. Within a few hours, Dr. Bruce Tempest of IHS, working with OMI, had located five young, healthy people who had all died after acute respiratory failure.

“A series of laboratory tests had failed to identify any of the deaths as caused by a known disease, such as bubonic plague. At this point, the CDC Special Pathogens Branch was notified. CDC, the state health departments of New Mexico, Colorado and Utah, the Indian Health Service, the Navajo Nation, and the University of New Mexico all joined together to confront the outbreak.

“During the next few weeks, as additional cases of the disease were reported in the Four Corners area, physicians and other scientific experts worked intensively to narrow down the list of possible causes. The particular mixture of symptoms and clinical findings pointed researchers away from possible causes, such as exposure to a herbicide or a new type of influenza, and toward some type of virus. Samples of tissue from patients who had gotten the disease were sent to CDC for exhaustive analysis. Virologists at CDC used several tests, including new methods to pinpoint virus genes at the molecular level, and were able to link the pulmonary syndrome with a virus, in particular a previously unknown type of hantavirus….” (CDC. Tracking a Mystery Disease: The Detailed Story of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). 3-11-2020 webpage.)

CDC, June 11, 1993: “Beginning in May 1993, cases of acute illness characterized by fever, myalgias, headache, and cough, followed by rapid development of respiratory failure, have been reported to the New Mexico Department of Health (NMDOH), Arizona Department of Health Services (ADHS), Colorado Department of Health (CDH), and Utah Department of Health (UDH). This report presents preliminary findings from an ongoing investigation of this problem, which suggest this illness is associated with a previously unrecognized hantavirus.

“On May 14, the NMDOH was notified by the Office of the Medical Investigator that two persons living in the same household had died within 5 days of each other. Their illnesses were characterized by abrupt onset of fever, myalgias, headache, and cough, followed by the rapid development of respiratory failure. Tests for Yersinia pestis and other bacterial and viral pathogens were negative. After additional persons who had recently died following a similar clinical course were reported to the NMDOH by the Indian Health Service (IHS), the ADHS, CDH, and UDH were contacted by the NMDOH seeking other possible cases….

“Through June 7, a total of 24 case-patients have been identified. Case-patients had onsets of illness beginning in December 1992; most (14) had onset in May… The most recent case-patient had onset of illness June 1. Case-patients resided in New Mexico (17), Arizona (five), Utah (one), and Colorado (one). Their median age was 34 years (range: 13-87 years; 17 were aged 18-50 years). Thirteen were male. Fourteen case-patients were American Indians, nine were white, and one was Hispanic. Twelve (50%) case-patients have died….

“Editorial Note…. Rodents are the natural hosts for all known hantaviruses (3). Humans are thought to be at risk for infection after exposure to rodent excreta, either through the aerosol route or direct inoculation. There is no evidence of person-to-person transmission for any of the known hantaviruses, nor has occupational transmission been documented to health-care workers. Laboratory workers practicing universal precautions while processing routine clinical materials (such as blood, urine, and respiratory specimens) are not considered to be at increased risk for hantavirus infection. However, laboratory-acquired infections have occurred among persons who handled infected wild or laboratory rodents (7). Therefore, laboratory work that may result in propagation of hantaviruses should be conducted in a biosafety level 3 facility….

“This cluster of unexplained acute illnesses in the Southwest illustrates the potential for new infectious disease problems to emerge at any time within the United States (10). These diseases may emerge because of microbial adaptation, environmental disturbances or changes, or population shifts. Vigilance and surveillance are required to rapidly recognize and determine the etiology of these emerging microbial threats to health so that prevention and control strategies can be implemented.” (CDC. “Outbreak of Acute Illness — Southwestern United States, 1993.” MMWR, 42/22, 6-11-1993, pp. 421-424.)

CDC, June 18, 1993: “….Through June 15, seven confirmed cases of hantavirus illness had been identified; four of these case-patients have died. Of the seven case-patients, four were from New Mexico, two from Arizona, and one from Colorado. Similar illnesses in an additional 22 persons, 12 of whom died, are being investigated….

“During the week of June 6, rodents were collected from peridomestic settings of several case-patients. Of 42 rodents tested, 12 (29%) had serologic evidence of hantavirus infection; all 12 were of the species Peromyscus maniculatus (deer mouse)….” (CDC. “Update: Outbreak of Hantavirus Infection — Southwestern United States, 1993.” MMWR, 42/23, 6-18-1993, 441-43.)

CDC, 2012: “In May 1993, an outbreak of an unexplained pulmonary illness occurred in the southwestern United States, in an area shared by Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Utah known as “The Four Corners”. A young, physically fit Navajo man suffering from shortness of breath was rushed to a hospital in New Mexico and died very rapidly.

“While reviewing the results of the case, medical personnel discovered that the young man’s fiancée had died a few days before after showing similar symptoms, a piece of information that proved key to discovering the disease. As Dr. James Cheek of the Indian Health Service (IHS) noted, “I think if it hadn’t been for that initial pair of people that became sick within a week of each other, we never would have discovered the illness at all”.

“Researchers knew that all other known hantaviruses were transmitted to people by rodents, such as mice and rats. Therefore, an important part of their mission was to trap as many different species of rodents living in the Four Corners region as possible to find the particular type of rodent that carried the virus. From June through mid-August of 1993, all types of rodents were trapped inside and outside homes where people who had hantavirus pulmonary syndrome had lived, as well as in piñon groves and summer sheep camps where they had worked. Additional rodents were trapped for comparison in and around nearby households as well. Taking a calculated risk, researchers decided not to wear protective clothing or masks during the trapping process. “We didn’t want to go in wearing respirators, scaring…everybody”, John Sarisky, an Indian Health Service environmental disease specialist said. However, when the almost 1,700 rodents trapped were dissected to prepare samples for analysis at CDC, protective clothing and respirators were worn.

“Among rodents trapped, the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) was found to be the main host to a previously unknown type of hantavirus. Since the deer mouse often lives near people in rural and semi-rural areas—in barns and outbuildings, woodpiles, and inside people’s homes—researchers suspected that the deer mouse might be transmitting the virus to humans. About 30% of the deer mice tested showed evidence of infection with hantavirus. Tests also showed that several other types of rodents were infected, although in lesser numbers.

“The next step was to pin down the connection between the infected deer mice and households where people who had gotten the disease lived. Therefore, investigators launched a case-control investigation. They compared “case” households, where people who had gotten the disease lived, with nearby “control” households. Control households were similar to those where the case-patients lived, except for one factor: no one in the control households had gotten the disease.

“The results? First, investigators trapped more rodents in case households than in control households, so more rodents may have been living in close contact with people in case households. Second, people in case households were more likely than those in control households to do cleaning around the house or to plant in or hand-plow soil outdoors in fields or gardens. However, it was unclear if the risk for contracting HPS was due to performing these tasks, or with entering closed-up rooms or closets to get tools needed for these tasks.

“In November 1993, the specific hantavirus that caused the Four Corners outbreak was isolated. The Special Pathogens Branch at CDC used tissue from a deer mouse that had been trapped near the New Mexico home of a person who had gotten the disease and grew the virus from it in the laboratory. Shortly afterwards and independently, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) also grew the virus, from a person in New Mexico who had gotten the disease as well as from a mouse trapped in California.

“The new virus was called Muerto Canyon virus — later changed to Sin Nombre virus (SNV) — and the new disease caused by the virus was named hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, or HPS….” (CDC. Tracking a Mystery Disease: The Detailed Story of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). 8-29-2012.)

Kohn: “U.S. Hantavirus (Sin Nombre Virus, Four Corners Disease) Outbreak of 1993

“Small but powerful outbreak that swept through the vast (25,000) square miles) Navajo reservation (population 175,000) in the southwestern United States in the spring of 1993, leading to the identification of yet another strain of hantavirus…

“On May 14, 1993, a 19-year-old Navajo long-distance runner, Merrill Bahe, collapsed and died in a car as he was heading to Gallup, New Mexico, for the funeral of his 26-year-old wife, Florena Woody, who had died days earlier in an Indian Health Service (HIS) clinic 60 miles away. Bahe had complained of fever and headache prior to this journey. During the drive, suddenly and inexplicably, he began gasping for breath and within minutes died of acute respiratory distress. The attending physician at Gallup’s HIS clinic realized that Bahe’s symptoms were remarkably similar to that of another recent case that a colleague had mentioned. It turned out that the colleague was referring to Bahe’s wife, who had died of identical symptoms. Within a week, her brother and his girlfriend who lived in a nearby trailer were struck; she died. The deaths of those healthy, athletic young people stunned the entire Navajo community living in the Four Corners region (so called because it is located at the convergence of Arizona community living in the Four Corners region (so called because it is located at the convergence of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado). Investigation revealed that there had been several such cases of acute respiratory distress in the reservation during the spring with at least five deaths, all among healthy young people. The autopsy on Bahe and Woody showed fluid-filled lungs that weighed twice as much as normal. The health departments of all four states ere put on alert as researchers examined the autopsied samples. They did not find flu or other common viruses or bacteria. The initial hypothesis was that it was pneumonic plague but this was not corroborated by lab studies. Samples were sent to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta where they were studied in high-security Level 4 laboratories.

“Several weeks later, scientists had established that the virus – which they now know to be a more lethal type of hantavirus – was carried by the prairie deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus). Heavy precipitation after two years of drought had created an abundance of piñon nus, which in turn had created an explosion in the population of deer mice. The virus is shed in rodent droppings and inhaled when the soil or dust containing these is disturbed. It can also enter the human body through the eyes or through broken skin or through food and water contaminated with rodent excretions. Between June and August 1993, the virus was found in 30 percent of the 1,700 trapped rodents. According to Navaho oral tradition, the virus has been around a long time, with outbreaks in 1918 and 1933. It does not spread through direct human-to-human contact. However, initial media descriptions associating the disease with the Navajos led many non-Navajo persons, such as tourists to shun them and thus intensify the discrimination they already felt.

“By November 1993, there were 45 cases reported – 27 of them ending in sudden death, with the victims literally choking on their own body fluids. Cases of the newly christened hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) were reported in 12 states from Oregon to Texas. However, the death rate had plummeted from 60 percent to 35 percent, with only three new cases (none fatal) in the Four Corners area during November. The public information campaign in English, Spanish, and Navajo – distributed to churches, schools, public health and extermination workers – coupled with a decline in the population of deer mice may have prevented the outbreak from spreading further….

“Further reading: Garrett, The Coming Plague; Harper and Meyer, Of Mice, Men and Microbes – Hantavirus.” (Kohn, George Childs (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence From Ancient Times to the Present (Revised Edition). NY: Checkmark Books, 2001, p. 360.)

Stumpff: “In 1993 a young Navajo woman died suddenly of respiratory failure without a history of previous illness. A few days later, her fiancé died in a similar way, leading to widespread concern. On May 18, the New Mexico Department of Health called in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and soon many health organizations and research institutions were involved. At first, the disease was tagged ‘the Navajo flu’ in USA Today and the Arizona Republic called it ‘the Navajo epidemic,’ only because this outbreak of new viral strain was discovered in the Four Corners Region. It was ultimately identified as a new strain of a long-known hantavirus family. A year later, over forty people in seventeen states were dead from similar strains. Scientific research eventually pointed to hantavirus as the explanation for the outbreak and for earlier deaths, going back to1959….

(Stumpff, Linda Moon. Hantavirus and the Navajo Nation – A Double-Jeopardy Disease.)

Newspapers

May 27: “Albuquerque (AP)–New Mexico health officials have alerted doctors around the Four Corners about a deadly respiratory illness that has claimed the lives of six people in recent weeks. State epidemiologist Dr. Mack Sewell said Wednesday the illness has mostly affected young people on the Navajo reservation in northwestern New Mexico. Two of the 10 cases under investigation occurred across the state line in Arizona, said Dr. Maggie Gallaher of the state epidemiology office. ‘The thing that’s unusual is the clustering and the timing,’ Sewell said. ‘It’s a period where we’re seeing many young people in otherwise healthy communities dying suddenly.’

“All the victims — eight Navajos and two non-Indians — lived on or near the Navajo Reservation, Sewell said….he said three of the victims were from the same family residence.

“The Albuquerque Journal reported in its Thursday editions that the three family members included former Santa Fe Indian School standout runner Merrill Bahe, his fiancée, Florina Woody, and the couple’s infant son. Bahe and Woody died of the affliction, while the child was hospitalized, the Journal reported. The three lived in Littlewater, near Crownpoint….

“The illness progresses very quickly, Sewell said. Victims first reported flu-like symptoms — fever, muscle aches and a cough — followed by great respiratory difficulties, Sewell said. ‘And then these people rapidly progress to death,’ Sewell said. Two infants were treated for the illness, the Journal said. The adult victims ranged in age from 19 to 58.” (AP. “Medical investigators seek cause of mystery illness striking young.” Alamogordo Daily News, NM, 5-27-1993, p. 9.)

May 28: “Santa Fe (AP)– State and federal health officials are baffled by a flu-like illness hat has killed at least eight people on or near the Navajo reservation….Two weeks of investigation has turned up new cases of the mystery illness but no clues it its cause….Sewell said 14 cases–including the eight deaths–fit the profile of the mystery illness. All have been in northwestern New Mexico and neighboring Arizona, although health officials are investigating a few reports of similar-sounding illnesses from other parts of New Mexico….

“One of the deaths and one other case occurred on the Navajo reservation in Arizona….Two cases occurred in non-Indians who live in Grants and Farmington….” (AP. “Strange illness baffling experts.” Clovis News Journal, NM, 5-28-1993, p. 1.)

May 30: “The state Department of Health is advising anyone in the Navajo Reservation area with flu-like symptoms to see a doctor. The warning was issued Friday [May 28] in response to the mysterious, deadly illness that health officials say has claimed 10 lives in the region. A 13-year-old girl who collapsed at a party in Gallup Friday and died Saturday became the 10th fatality blamed on the mysterious flu-like illness that continues to baffle state health officials….” (Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Gallup girl dies; death toll 10.” 5-30-1993, p. 1.)

June 1: “Albuquerque (AP) — A virus seems the most likely explanation for a mystery illness that has killed 11 people in New Mexico and Arizona, say doctors and public health officials who met over the Memorial Day weekend. A team working to track the illness includes nearly three dozen lab specialists, epidemiologists and others….

“The illness, first investigated in mid-May, has stricken 18 people, mostly in the Four Corners area of New Mexico and Arizona. It has killed 11 within hours or at most a few days of their becoming ill….”(Associated Press. “Mystery illness: Doctors search for cause.” Alamogordo Daily News, NM, 6-1-1993, p. 1.)

June 2: “A Farmington patient, suspected of suffering from a mysterious illness and transferred to the Albuquerque hospital caring for victims of the sometimes-fatal syndrome, may have died, a spokesman for the local medical center said….

“State health officials announced Tuesday afternoon [June 1] they have identified 12 who died of the unexplained, acute respiratory distress syndrome. Two other deaths, one in Kansas and one in Utah, remained unconfirmed Tuesday night.

“The Associated Press reported 19 confirmed cases of the illness, but a spokeswoman for the state’s epidemiologist’s office said Tuesday that there are now 23….” (Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “It’s still a mystery; 12 dead.” 6-2-1993, p. 1.)

June 3: “Crownpoint….Medical investigators are struggling to find a cause for the illness they believe has struck 21 and killed 13. Thirteen of those diagnosed with the mystery illness, which often begins with flu-like symptoms, have been Indian….” (Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Navajo Nation, state under siege.” 6-3-1993, p. 4.)

June 10: “Albuquerque (AP) — The state Office of the Medical Investigator took custody of the body of a local 22-year-old Navajo woman who died of mystery illness symptoms Wednesday [June 9], state officials said….

“Dr. Norton Kalishman, chief medical officer for the New Mexico Health Department…said a new suspected case also was reported Wednesday in Arizona and that both the Arizona patient and the Indian woman had the same symptoms as confirmed cases — respiratory distress, swollen lungs, low oxygen levels and high white blood cell count.

“State health officials on Wednesday also confirmed four more cases of the illness, adding cases that had occurred as early as February and as recently as last week. Those four included two from the Albuquerque area, one from north-central New Mexico and one from south-central New Mexico. That brought to 18 the total number of confirmed cases in New Mexico alone — 10 women, eight men, 11 Indians and seven Anglos. Eight people have died in New Mexico, four in Arizona. The woman who died Wednesday was not among the confirmed cases. Kalishman said it would take weeks of blood tests to establish whether the new suspected cases are part of the outbreak….

“The new cases, if confirmed, would be the first since May 28, when a 13-year-old girl collapsed near Gallup and died the following day. Until Wednesday, there had been 18 confirmed cases and 11 deaths, mostly Navajos.” (Associated Press. “‘It isn’t over, I’m afraid.’” Daily Times, Farmington, NM, 6-10-1993, p. A4.)

June 19: “People are far more likely to contract the sometimes fatal respiratory illness that has surfaced in the Four Corners region in recent weeks of they have had prolonged or direct exposure to rodents, a state health official said Friday [June 18]. Dr. Gary Simpson, medical director of infectious diseases for the New Mexico Department of Health, said it was unlikely that a single exposure or even occasional exposure to rodents could result in someone catching the disease, which has killed at least 16 people — most of them in northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. ‘No case to our knowledge had casual exposure (to rodents),’ Simpson said of the illness, believed to be a previously unknown type of hantavirus carried through the air by dust particles containing rodent feces, urine or saliva….

“Researchers suspect that one or more species of the common deer mouse may carry the virus…

“Simpson said that in Asia a type of hantavirus known as the Hantaan virus, after a river in Korea, strikes agricultural workers almost exclusively because rodents are prevalent in fields….

“Simpson…said many of the victims of the disease on the Navajo Reservation lived in houses in which rats were prevalent, both inside and outside the homes. ‘The cluster of cases in Littlewater (the town on the Navajo Reservation where several people have been killed by the virus) had significant exposure to a number of rodents in their homes.’….

“Health officials reported earlier this month that a woman from Grand Junction, Colo., who died of the virus in April, lived in a rodent-infested home…the risk that someone will inhale the virus is greater indoors where the air volume is limited….” (Santa Fe New Mexican. “Official: It takes time to get virus.” 6-19-1993, p. 1.)

Sources

Associated Press. “‘It isn’t over, I’m afraid.’” Daily Times, Farmington, NM, 6-10-1993, p. A4. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/farmington-daily-times-jun-10-1993-p-4/

Associated Press. “Medical investigators seek cause of mystery illness striking young.” Alamogordo Daily News, NM, 5-27-1993, p. 9. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/alamogordo-daily-news-may-27-1993-p-9/

Associated Press. “Mystery illness: Doctors search for cause.” Alamogordo Daily News, NM, 6-1-1993, p. 1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/alamogordo-daily-news-jun-01-1993-p-1/

Associated Press. “Strange illness baffling experts.” Clovis News Journal, NM, 5-28-1993, p. 1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/clovis-news-journal-may-28-1993-p-1/

Borowski, Susan. “The virus that rock the Four Corners reemerges.” AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 1-8-2013. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://www.aaas.org/blog/scientia/virus-rocked-four-corners-reemerges

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome – United States,, 1993.” MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report) Vol. 43, No. 3, 1-28-1994, pp. 45-48. Accessed 3-31-2021 at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00025007.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Outbreak of Acute Illness — Southwestern United States, 1993.” MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Report), Vol. 42, No. 22, June 11, 1993, pp. 421-424. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00020769.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tracking a Mystery Disease: The Detailed Story of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). Website. 8-29-2012. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/outbreaks/history.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Update: Outbreak of Hantavirus Infection — Southwestern United States, 1993.” MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Report), Vol. 42, No. 23, 6-18-1993, pp. 441-443. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000245/p0000245.asp

Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Gallup girl dies; death toll 10.” 5-30-1993, p. 1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/farmington-daily-times-may-30-1993-p-1/

Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “In Shiprock, life goes on.” 6-6-1993, p. D1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/farmington-daily-times-jun-06-1993-p-21/

Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “It’s still a mystery; 12 dead.” 6-2-1993, p. 1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/farmington-daily-times-jun-02-1993-p-1/

Daily Times, Farmington, NM. “Navajo Nation, state under siege.” 6-3-1993, p. 4. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/farmington-daily-times-jun-03-1993-p-4/

Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance. NY: Penguin Books, 1994.

Grady, Denise. “Death at the Corners.” Discover Magazine, 1-18-1993. Accessed 3-31-2021 at: https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/death-at-the-corners

Greenberg, Michael I. Disasters: Terrorist, Natural and Man-Made. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2006.

Kohn, George Childs (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence From Ancient Times to the Present (Revised Edition). NY: Checkmark Books, 2001.

Los Angeles Times (Tim Korte/Associated Press). “Deadly Desert Plague Left Scars on Kin of Victims: Hantavirus: Dozens died, beginning in Four Corners area.” 5-29-1994. Accessed 4-1-2021 at: https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-05-29-me-63552-story.html

New York Times (Lawrence W. Altman). “Virus That Caused Deaths Among Navajos Is Isolated.” 11-21-1993. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/21/us/virus-that-caused-deaths-among-navajos-is-isolated.html

Santa Fe New Mexican (Keith Easthouse). “Official: It takes time to get virus.” 6-19-1993, p. 1. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/santa-fe-new-mexican-jun-19-1993-p-1/

Scott, Michon. “Hantavirus Risk Maps.” NASA Earth Observatory, 2-5-2002. Accessed 4-1-2021 at: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Hanta

Stumpff, Linda Moon. Hantavirus and the Navajo Nation – A Double-Jeopardy Disease. Accessed 4-1-2021 at: http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/sites/nativecases.evergreen.edu/files/case-studies/Stumpff%20hantavirus.pdf

Van Hook, Charles J. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome – The 25th Anniversary of the Four Corners Outbreak.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 24, No. 11, 2018, pp. 2056-2060. Accessed 3-31-2021 at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6199996/

Wikipedia. “1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak.” 9-27-2017 edit. Accessed 11-6-2017 at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Four_Corners_hantavirus_outbreak

Additional References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hantavirus (website). 9-9-2020 last review. Accessed 4-1-2021 at: https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/

20th Century

1993 — March 16, Paxton Hotel (Single Room Occupancy) Fire, Chicago, IL — 20

lornajarrettblanchard March 16, 1993

— 21 Babwin/Birge. “Officials Add 2 More to Paxton Death Toll.” Chicago Tribune, 3-21-1993

— 20 Blanchard estimate.[1]

— 20 Chicago Tribune. “Arson fire kills seven in Chicago.” Herald-Journal, 3-21-1994, A4.

— 20 Emergency & Disaster Management, Inc. Chicago Disasters.

— 20 Kass, John. “City Seeks a New Fire Code for SRO Hotels.” Chicago Tribune, 3-15-1994.

— 20 NFPA. Summary Fire Investigation Report: Paxton Hotel Fire. 1993, p. 1.

— 20 O’Connell. “SRO [Single Room Occupancy] Fire Safety.” Chicago Tribune, 12-15-1994.

— 20 O’Connell, T.J. “SRO [Single Room Occupancy] Sprinklers,” Chicago Tribune, 7-2-1995.

— 20 Redsicker of O’Connor. Practical Fire and Arson Investigation, Second Ed. 1996, p. 192.

— 19 Chicago Tribune. “2 More Victims of Fire Identified.” 3-27-1993.

—>19 Chicago Tribune. “8^th Hotel Fire Victim Identified.” 3-23-1993.

— 19 Chicago Tribune. “Family of Paxton Fire Victim Sues.” 4-23-1993.

— 19 Davis. “Paxton Fire May Have Started Earlier, Chief Says.” Chicago Tribune, 4-3-1993.

— 19 O’Connell, T. “Fire’s deadly toll.” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 11-21-1993, p.10.

— 19 Stein / Poppen. “Services Set for Several Paxton Victims.” Chicago Tribune, 3-20-1993.

— 19 Van Matre, Lynn. “Rising From The Ashes.” Chicago Tribune, 5-9-1993.

Narrative Information

EDM: “…many people were trapped by burglar bars on first-floor windows…” (Emergency & Disaster Management, Inc. Chicago Disasters.)

NFPA: “On March 16, 1993, an early morning fire of undetermined cause and origin occurred at the Paxton Hotel in Chicago, Illinois, a building housing mainly low-income and elderly people. The fire spread into several rooms and filled corridors with combustion products before most occupants could escape and before the fire department was notified. First arriving fire fighters found the building heavily involved in fire and found tens of people by windows and on the roof in need of immediate rescue.

“Twenty residents died in this fire and other people who would have been expected to be on the premises at the hotel were counted as “missing”. An estimated 28 other residents were injured, and the building was destroyed….

“The Paxton Hotel was a four-story, reverse E-shaped building constructed in approximately 1930. A variety of materials were used to construct this building. The exterior bearing walls were masonry, and a steel structural frame supported interior bearing walls that were constructed of terra cotta tiles with a plaster finish. Non-bearing interior walls separating rooms were constructed of wood studs and were covered with plaster-on-lath. Wood joists were installed between the interior and exterior bearing walls, and the joists were covered with wood sheathing material forming a sub- floor. The sub-floor was, in turn, covered with hardwood flooring in all areas. Ceilings in the building were wire mesh covered by painted plaster. The roof was constructed in a manner similar to the floor assemblies; i.e., it had wood structural members and wood sheathing materials.

“Each floor had a central corridor which connected smaller corridors for the three wings. The corridors served as access to three exit stairways; one stairway was located at the end of each wing. Like the corridors, stairways were enclosed by painted terra cotta tile walls, and the stairway enclosures were originally equipped with fire doors. Prior to the fire, however, doors on the top three floors had been removed during the installation of carpeting, and these doors had not been replaced at the completion of the project. The fire doors on the first floor reportedly were held open by chocks on the night of the fire. Combustible materials in the building’s stairway components included wood treads and risers and stringers. Combustible materials in the corridors included wood sub-floor assemblies, carpeting over hardwood floors, wood guest/resident room doors, and wood trim.

“The building had an estimated 140 single-occupant, guest/resident rooms, and all of these rooms opened directly onto the central corridor. Reportedly, all of the room doors were wood, and none of the doors were equipped with self-closing devices.

“The building’s population at the time of the fire has been estimated at 160 people because approximately 128 of the building’s 140 guest/resident rooms were occupied, and several occupants had guests in their rooms. The majority of the building occupants were middle-aged; however, a few were elderly. Most occupants had a low income. Many of the building occupants were apparently long-term, i.e., periods longer than 30 days, residents of the facility. Due to the apparent lengths of their stay, some of the residents filled their rooms with personal possessions and furnishings, the majority of which were combustible. Therefore, the fuel load in many guest/resident rooms was much higher than that in rooms housing a more transient or short-term population.

“The building was equipped with a local fire alarm system. Manual pull stations were installed throughout the building and the operation of any pull stations should have initiated alarm signaling devices also located throughout the building. Reportedly, the fire alarm system was not operational at the time of the fire. In addition to the fire alarm system, individual single station smoke detectors were reportedly installed in a few of the guest/resident rooms. Due to the extensive damage to the building, investigators were unable to locate any of these smoke detectors…

“At approximately 4:05 a.m., the Chicago Fire Department received a telephone call reporting a fire at the Paxton Hotel. That call was followed by a second, and last, telephone call reporting the fire. An alarm was initiated, which resulted in the dispatch of two engines, a tower ladder, an aerial tower, a squad and a battalion chief.

“Upon arrival, the first engine company saw fire visible above the building’s roof and it appeared that smoke was coming out of windows on the second and third floors of the four-story building. The company officer ordered a 2 1/2-inch hoseline be brought into the building and went around the building to perform an exterior size-up of the situation. Upon closer examination of the building, he found heavy smoke coming out of the top three stories and many people hanging out of windows on upper floors. He returned to the engine and, at 4:10 a.m., requested that a full box alarm be initiated. In response to this request, two additional engines, one ladder, and two battalion chiefs were dispatched.

“Fire fighters who advanced the first attack hoseline into the building found the first floor corridor to be clear of smoke. As they reached the southwest corner of the building, they found the fire involved the stairway and a large section of that stairway had already collapsed. In addition, the fire involved two first-floor guest/resident rooms adjacent to the stairway. The fire fighters were able to knock down the fires in the rooms, but they were not able to control the fire spreading up the stairway.

“In order to find a location for a more effective attack against the fire in the stairway, fire fighters eventually backed their attack hoseline away from their position near the southwest stairway. As they were moving through the building, this crew saw that the center stairway was now involved in the fire. In addition, plaster from the ceiling was dropping on their heads, indicating that the ceiling assembly was deteriorating. This deterioration was likely caused by fire spreading through the joist channels above the finished ceiling. These conditions forced the fire fighters to back all the way out of the building.

“As other fire companies arrived, they found external conditions that also indicated conditions within the building were rapidly deteriorating. For example, the amount of smoke coming out of windows on the upper floors continually increased, and more and more occupants began hanging out of windows pleading for rescue. Some occupants even began to jump.

“Early in the rescue operations, there were more occupants in need of immediate rescue than there were available fire fighters and ladders. Adjacent buildings, trees, and power lines limited the areas where aerial equipment could be used. Therefore, fire fighters used many ground ladders as quickly as they could. Fire fighters attempted to verbally assure the anxious occupants that they would be rescued soon. In addition to using visual cues to estimate the relative need for rescue, fire fighters sometimes gauged the need for rescue by the stress in the occupants’ voices.

“The difficulty of the rescues varied greatly. Sometimes fire fighters could hear, but not see, an occupant due to the heavy smoke that remained close to the ground engulfing the building; as a result, they placed ladders close to the voice as they attempted to locate the person. Some occupants attempted to jump on ladders while fire fighters were putting the ladders into position, and other occupants were too scared to climb down the ladders. A few victims did not want to leave, while others attempted to bring belongings and money down the ladder with them. Several occupants jumped before fire fighters could reach their location and attempt rescue.

“In addition to using ladders while rescuing occupants, fire fighters cut metal security bars in order to reach occupants trapped in first-floor guest/resident rooms. At least one of these trapped persons died in her room before fire fighters could remove the bars and reach her.

“Ultimately, five alarms were struck, bringing 30 fire apparatus, 5 battalion chiefs, 1 district chief, and 20 ambulances to the scene. In addition to being committed to the numerous and complex search and rescue operations, fire fighters were involved in the protection of exposures and the operation of at least eight hose-lines and master streams while extinguishing the fire. The fire was considered under control a couple of hours after the initial report; however, small hot spots continued to burn within the rubble for days while the damaged building was dismantled and the debris searched for victims.

“Analysis

“At the time this report was prepared, local fire investigators considered the cause of the fire to be “undetermined.” During their investigation, local authorities examined several possible ignition scenarios. One scenario placed the area of fire origin in a first-floor guest/resident room, and another scenario theorized that the fire may have started in a storage closet. The possibility of an incendiary ignition was not ruled out; however, no physical evidence was found to support that ignition scenario.

“Due to the lack of information regarding ignition, it was not possible to develop specific details about the initial fire growth, but the accounts of building occupants and of people who lived in buildings near the Paxton Hotel suggest that the fire may have been burning for an extended period of time before being reported to the fire department. For example, two occupants of the building were awakened by ringing telephones connected to the hotel’s automatic “wake up call” system approximately 20 minutes before the Chicago Fire Department was notified of the fire. These people smelled smoke and found that their room doors were hot. Reportedly, both occupants attempted to call the fire department, but, were unable to do so for undetermined reasons. In addition, other witnesses reportedly observed smoke spreading across a street near the Paxton Hotel approximately 40 minutes before fire fighters arrived. One neighbor reported to investigators that smoke odors were noticeable approximately 45 minutes before fire fighters arrived at the hotel. Although the witness felt that the smoke odors were not coming from the building in which he was located, the witness could not confirm the smoke odors were coming from the Paxton Hotel.

“Investigators believe that most occupants of the Paxton Hotel did not become aware of the fire until it was well developed, blocking their means of egress. According to statements from the occupants who first discovered the fire, they attempted to evacuate the rooms closest to the two first-floor rooms involved in the fire. Their statements did not indicate that they attempted to notify occupants of other parts of the building. The building’s alarm system was reportedly inoperative at the time of the fire, and there were no reports of anyone hearing fire alarm signals early in this incident. These statements and details strongly suggest that many of the building’s occupants were unaware of the developing fire. Moreover, the fact that most occupants did not escape before fire department arrival, and the fact that arriving fire fighters found a well-developed fire, supports the theory that most building occupants were not aware of the fire during the period when they likely could have escaped.

“Arriving fire fighters, who had a response time of four minutes, found fire visible above the building’s roof and smoke coming out of rooms on at least two floors. They also confirmed that the fire involved at least two first-floor guest/resident rooms and a stairway when they made entry into the building. All of these observations show that the fire was well developed at the time of their arrival and suggest that the fire was probably already well developed and growing at the time that the first reports of the fire were being communicated to the fire department dispatch center.

“Investigators theorize that several paths for fire spread were involved in this incident and allowed the fire to involve large areas of the building before the fire was discovered and reported. Evidence suggests that fire may have ignited combustible materials within the floor assemblies early in the fire scenario. The fire then spread horizontally in the joist channels until it reached the clay tile corridor walls. These walls had pockets allowing the floors joists to rest on the walls. The pockets were nonfirestopped holes through the walls; therefore, fire in a joist channel on one side of the wall was able to spread to the joist channels on the other side of the wall, increasing the area subject to horizontal fire spread. Investigators also believe that fire spreading above the first-floor ceiling probably caused plaster in that assembly to deteriorate and drop onto fire fighters operating below it. In addition to the horizontal fire spread, investigators theorize that early in the fire scenario the fire spread vertically through non-firestopped pipe chases. The fire spreading through pipe chases entered the building’s attic, a large, undivided, combustible concealed space. Once in this area, the fire spread over the building’s entire length.

“In addition to the fire spreading in concealed spaces, fire also spread vertically and horizontally in occupied areas. At some point in the incident, combustible materials in the southwest stairway and two first-floor rooms near this stairway were ignited. It was against this fire that fire fighters made their first attack. Even though suppression crews were able to extinguish the room fires, they were not able to suppress the fire that was spreading up the stairway. The fire in the stairway also entered corridors on floors above because enclosure doors had been removed. In turn, miscellaneous combustible materials in corridors, e.g., wood trim, wood flooring, and carpeting, were ignited contributing to the horizontal spread of fire through corridors. Because the corridors were not divided into at least two smoke compartments, smoke was able to quickly fill the corridor and fire was able to spread along the entire length of the corridor. Over time the fire burned through room doors, igniting the contents of those rooms. Thus, it appears that the fire was fueled by both combustible construction materials and combustible room contents.

“Based on the NFPA’s investigation and analysis, several factors apparently contributed to the loss of life and property at the Paxton Hotel. These factors include, but are not limited to, fire spread in combustible concealed spaces, stairways without doors, the lack of subdivisions in corridors, the lack of an operating building-wide fire alarm system, and a delay in fire department notification due in part to the absence of fire detection equipment. All of these factors are not new to the fire safety professionals and code writers and have been commonly cited as contributors to other large life loss fires….” (NFPA. Summary Fire Investigation Report: Paxton Hotel Fire. 1993, pp. 1-7.)

Newspapers

March 20, Stein and Poppen/Chicago Tribune: “Services have been scheduled for several of the seven people identified as victims of Tuesday’s fire at the Paxton Hotel. Twelve of the 19 known victims remain unidentified Friday; eight other people were missing. The Cook County medical examiner’s office has identified the seven as Veeta Wilson, 32; Idana Morrow, 49; Florencio Coronado, 91; Percy Alsup Jr., 42; Charles Harms, 56; Theodore Warren Guernsey, 60; and Pamela Robinson, 30….” (Stein and Poppen. “Services Set for Several Paxton Victims.” Chicago Tribune, 3-20-1993.)

March 21, Babwin and Birge/Chicago Tribune: “The digging through the rubble of what was the Paxton Hotel stopped abruptly at 5:25 p.m. Saturday when a firefighter broke away from the cluster of his co-workers and ran across the street. “Chief, we got another one,” he said when he reached a group of Fire Department officials standing across from 1432 N. LaSalle St. With that, the number of victims of Tuesday morning’s blaze climbed to 21, and the number of missing residents dropped to six. Later, Fire Department spokesman Mike Cosgrove confirmed that a partial body had been found. He said that a short time later other body parts were discovered nearby, but it was too early to say whether they were from the same victim. Cosgrove said the body was unrecognizable, but another Fire Department official said the remains appeared to be that of an elderly man. Earlier in the day, Cosgrove announced that the death toll had reached 20 because the Cook County medical examiner’s office had determined that portions of human remains did not belong to any of the other recovered victims….” (Babwin, Don and Elizabeth Birge. “Officials Add 2 More to Paxton Death Toll.” Chicago Tribune, 3-21-1993.)

March 23, Chicago Tribune: “Officials have identified an eighth person killed in last Tuesday’s fire at the Paxton Hotel in Chicago. William Kozak, whose age was unavailable, was identified Saturday morning, said Mike Boehmer, an assistant administrator for the Cook County Medical Examiner’s Office….At least 10 people died in the blaze.” (Chicago Tribune. “8^th Hotel Fire Victim Identified.” 3-23-1993.)

March 27, 1993, Chicago Tribune: “Chicago — The Cook County medical examiner’s office has identified two more victims of the Paxton Hotel fire. Both Charles Settles, 54, and Irene Heard, 44, lived in the hotel at 1432 N. LaSalle St., said Michael Boehmer, a spokesman. Settles and Heard became the ninth and 10th victims of the fire to be identified. Nineteen people died in the March 16 blaze.” (Chicago Tribune. “2 More Victims of Fire Identified.” 3-27-1993.)

April 3, 1993, Davis/Chicago Tribune: “Fire was spotted on the roof of the Paxton Hotel as early as an hour before it was officially reported in a March 16 blaze that killed 19 people, Chicago Fire Commissioner Raymond Orozco disclosed Friday. More than one witness from the Sandburg Village apartment complex across the street from the single room occupancy residential hotel at 1432 N. LaSalle St. told Fire Department investigators of seeing fire on the roof. These observations were made 20 minutes to a full hour before the blaze was officially reported at 4:05 a.m. that day. Although Orozco declined to speculate about how the contradiction in reporting times might relate to the undetermined cause of the blaze, he did say the reports indicate “there might have been a delay in the alarm.” He said investigators are trying to determine why the alarm system did not sound earlier if the fire actually started closer to 3 a.m. than to 4 a.m.” (Davis, Robert. “Paxton Fire May Have Started Earlier, Chief Says.” Chicago Tribune, 4-3-1993.)

April 23, 1993, Chicago Tribune: “The owners of the Paxton Hotel and the city were sued Thursday by the family of a man killed in the March 16 fire at the transient hotel. The suit charges James Edwards died as a result of unsafe conditions in the hotel, including the lack of smoke detectors in hallways and stairwells, and exit signs that weren’t lit. In addition to seeking more than $50 million in damages against the owners, the Merryman Hotel Corp., the lawsuit also asks for damages against the city for failing to force the owners to correct the problems and for failing to adequately inspect the hotel for code violations. Nineteen people died in the fire.” (Chicago Tribune. “Family of Paxton Fire Victim Sues.” 4-23-1993.)

May 9, 1993, Van Matre/Chicago Tribune: “The Paxton Hotel disaster has vanished from the headlines. There’s a vacant lot where the single-room-occupancy residential hotel once stood at 1432 N. LaSalle St. Services for the 19 residents killed in the March 16 fire are just a memory now….” (Van Matre, Lynn. “Rising From The Ashes.” Chicago Tribune, 5-9-1993.)

March 15, 1994, Kass/Chicago Tribune: “Nearly a year after a deadly fire killed 20 residents of the Paxton Hotel, Mayor Richard Daley on Monday unveiled a sweeping series of building code changes aimed at improving fire safety in such Single Room Occupancy hotels. As he unveiled his proposed fire code changes, the mayor said it was unlikely that authorities will ever determine the cause of the March 16 fire at the Paxton Hotel, 1432 N. LaSalle St. “The Fire Department’s report indicates that the official cause of the Paxton fire remains unknown,” said the mayor as he stood outside the Windale Hotel, at 6019 N. Winthrop Ave. “There are several likely theories, but because the damage was so extensive, it’s impossible to say. But we do know that the building had no functioning fire alarms and smoke detectors, which is why the fire had spread so much before we got there.” The mayor’s ordinance, scheduled to be introduced to the Chicago City Council next week, would order SRO owners to install electric fire alarm systems and heat and smoke detectors for all rooms. It also would mandate that each stairwell be equipped with a fire door and call for other code revisions.

“SRO operators, who manage about 15,000 rooms in Chicago for poor and transient residents, will not be required to install expensive sprinkling systems. Daley said the measure was designed to encourage the development of SRO housing. The city will give $2 million to select operators to help them meet the proposed fire code cost. Daley said the sprinkler requirement, once considered by his administration after the Paxton fire, was dropped because of the cost….” (Kass, John. “City Seeks a New Fire Code for SRO Hotels.” Chicago Tribune, 3-15-1994.)

April 27, 1994, Chicago Tribune: “It’s too late to help those who died in last year’s fire at the Paxton Hotel, but this week the Chicago City Council can begin to honor the memory of the victims by helping make sure such tragedies are not repeated. On Wednesday the council’s Committee on Buildings will consider a package of amendments aimed at strengthening city fire and building codes covering single-room occupancy hotels, or SROs….

“The task force set up by Mayor Richard Daley to investigate the fire and recommend corrective action could have called for a drastic retrofit of all older weekly-rate hotels to include, for instance, installation of automatic sprinkler systems.

“Fortunately the panel was mindful of a less spectacular, though no less tragic, situation regarding the availability here of housing for low-income single adults. Over the past two decades the city has been losing privately owned SRO units at the rate of 750 a year-the result of urban renewal, gentrification and the financial near impossibility of developing and maintaining apartments for the indigent or near-indigent. Illinois’ decision to all but eliminate general assistance welfare has made a bad situation worse. Housing experts see a direct correlation between the decline of SRO units, now down to 15,000 citywide, and the growing number of homeless men and women to be seen on Chicago streets.

“With that in mind, the mayor’s Paxton task force has called for a series of code revisions that will make SROs significantly safer without forcing scores of operators out of business. The city, moreover, would set up a $2 million loan program to help operators make needed changes, with loans forgiven if the SRO stays in business for at least five years. Under the proposed code revisions, all SROs above a certain minimum size would have to install: hard-wired electric fire alarm systems; independent heat and smoke alarms in all rooms, corridors and stairwells; self-closing fire doors separating stairwells and corridors, and exit diagrams in every room. Owners also would have to be licensed by the city and keep their front desks staffed 24 hours a day.

“It should be remembered, however, that the Paxton was supposed to have stairwell fire doors-yet for some reason they were missing or inoperative that terrible morning of March 16, 1993. Which is to say that the most stringent fire code is useless unless it is adequately enforced. Let that, too, be a legacy of the Paxton Hotel.” (Chicago Tribune, IL. “Lifesaving Legacy of the Paxton Hotel. 4-37-1994.)

July 2, 1995, O’Connell/Chicago Tribune: “Chicago – In 1993 a fire swept through the Paxton Hotel on the city’s North Side, killing 20 residents. The Paxton Hotel was a single-room occupancy hotel, or SRO, and had not installed automatic fire sprinklers, the only fire-protection system that could have stopped the carnage. There has never been a multiple loss of life from fire or smoke in a fully sprinklered building. Today, despite the lessons of the Paxton Hotel fire, less than 5 percent of Chicago’s 200 SROs have installed sprinklers. The primary reason is cost. Under Chicago’s present building code, SROs are required to install fire-sprinkler systems of the same caliber and expense as Gold Coast luxury hotels. Unchanged since 1973, the existing sprinkler installation code does not take into account the many cost-efficient technologies the sprinkler and plumbing industries have introduced over the last two decades that can make modern fire protection a reality for SROs.

“As the co-author of an updated version of the sprinkler-installation code, I am asking for the careful consideration of the City Council, Mayor Daley and the Chicago Fire Department in this matter.[2] The code needs to be changed. It is in the best interest of the city, the real estate community and the more than 17,000 people who reside in Chicago’s SROs.” (O’Connell, Thomas J. “SRO [Single Room Occupancy] Sprinklers,” Chicago Tribune, 7-2-1995.)

Identified Victims

Alsup, Percy Jr., 42.
Coronado, Florencio, 91.
Edwards, James.
Guernsey, Theodore Warren, 60.
Harms, Charles, 56.
Heard, Irene.
Kozak, William.
Morrow, Idana, 49.
Robinson, Pamela, 30.
Settles, Charles, 54.
Wilson, Veeta, 32.

Sources

Babwin, Don and Elizabeth Birge. “Officials Add 2 More to Paxton Death Toll.” Chicago Tribune, 3-21-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-03-21/news/9303310212_1_paxton-hotel-digging-elderly-man

Chicago Tribune. “2 More Victims of Fire Identified.” 3-27-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-03-27/news/9303270194_1_paxton-hotel-settles-victims

Chicago Tribune. “8^th Hotel Fire Victim Identified.” 3-23-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-03-23/news/9303230105_1_paxton-hotel-assistant-administrator-fire

Chicago Tribune. “Arson fire kills seven in Chicago.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-21-1994, A4. Accessed 3-25-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=28750238&sterm=paxton+hotel

Chicago Tribune. “Family of Paxton Fire Victim Sues.” 4-23-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-04-23/news/9304230258_1_hotel-for-code-violations-paxton-hotel-transient-hotel

Chicago Tribune, IL. “Lifesaving Legacy of the Paxton Hotel. 4-37-1994. Accessed 3-25-2016: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-04-27/news/9404270023_1_sro-units-paxton-hotel-city-fire-and-building

Davis, Robert. “Paxton Fire May Have Started Earlier, Chief Says.” Chicago Tribune, 4-3-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-04-03/news/9304030191_1_paxton-hotel-space-heater-first-floor-apartment

Emergency & Disaster Management Inc. “Chicago Disasters.” Accessed 1-22-2008 at: http://www.emergency-management.net/chicago_di.htm

Kass, John. “City Seeks a New Fire Code for SRO Hotels.” Chicago Tribune, 3-15-1994. Accessed 3-25-2016: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-03-15/news/9403150071_1_paxton-hotel-sro-hotels-single-room-occupancy-hotels

National Fire Protection Association. Summary Fire Investigation Report: Paxton Hotel Fire, Chicago, Illinois, March 16, 1993. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 1993, 11 pages.

Van Matre, Lynn. “Rising From The Ashes.” Chicago Tribune, 5-9-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/keyword/paxton-hotel

O’Connell, Thomas. “Fire’s deadly toll.” Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL, 11-21-1993, p.10. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=263797144&sterm=paxton+hotel

O’Connell, Thomas J. “SRO [Single Room Occupancy] Fire Safety.” Chicago Tribune, 12-15-1994. Accessed at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-12-15/news/9412150047_1_single-room-occupancy-paxton-hotel-building-codes

O’Connell, Thomas J. “SRO [Single Room Occupancy] Sprinklers,” Chicago Tribune, 7-2-1995. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1995-07-02/news/9507020008_1_sprinkler-installation-paxton-hotel-single-room-occupancy-hotel

Redsicker, David R. and John J. O’Connor. Practical Fire and Arson Investigation (Second Edition). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group, 1996. Google digital preview accessed 3-25-2016 at: https://books.google.com/books?id=mUbGAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Stein, Sharman and Julie Poppen. “Services Set for Several Paxton Victims.” Chicago Tribune, 3-20-1993. Accessed 3-25-2016 at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/keyword/paxton-hotel

[1] Though there was an early report of 21 fatalities based on the Medical Examiner’s efforts to determine from body parts, how many victims were involved, the reporting thereafter tended to report nineteen fatalities up through Nov 21, 1993. Then the same author of that article, a retired Chicago Fire Dept. official and then Executive Director of the Northern IL Fire Sprinkler Advisory Board, referenced twenty deaths in a Dec 15, 1994 article. That is the number we tend to see thereafter. We have only been able to locate the names of eleven identified fatalities.

[2] Executive Director, Northern Illinois Fire Sprinkler Advisory Board, Chicago Fire Department (Ret.).

20th Century

1993 — March 12-14, Gulf/East Coast late Winter Storm[1]; esp. FL/51 PA/52 –247 (US)-318

lornajarrettblanchard March 12, 1993

— 247-318 Blanchard tally of minimum of 247 U.S. deaths, and maximum of 318 international.

— 294-300 Blanchard tally of U.S. State, Cuba, Canada and North Atlantic fatalities below.[2]

— 247-253 Blanchard tally of U.S. State breakouts below (direct and indirect).[3]

— 318 Burt and Stroud. Extreme Weather: A Guide & Record Book. 2004, p. 94.

— 318 National Weather Service. Superstorm of 1993.

— 310 U.S., Canada, Cuba. AJC.com. “21 years ago, Atlanta slammed by rare blizzard.”[4]

— >300 Allsop, Harry. “Nemo: Top ten worst blizzards to hit the US.” Telegraph, UK, 2-8-2013.

— >300 NWS. Biggest Snow Storms in U.S. from 1888-Present. NWS Milwaukee WFO, 2005

— 286 (238 confirmed dead and 48 others missing and assumed dead). AP, Knoxville, TN.[5]

— 270 Grabianowski, Ed. “10 Biggest Snowstorms of All Time.” Howstuffworks.com.

— ~270 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993.[6]

— 270 Lott/Ross, Tracking and Evaluating U.S. Billion Dollar Weather Disasters, 1980-2005.

— >238 Eastern U.S. AP. “Storm rescue ends happily.” Leader-Call, Laurel, MS. 3-19-1993, p1.

— 235 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

— 219 Associated Press. “Storm toll 219…” [Cuba to Canada] 3-17-1993.[7]

— 208 NWS (Armstrong). Superstorm of 1993. “Storm of the Century,” March 12-14, 1993.

— ~200 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report. Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993.

— ~200 VA DEM. Winter Weather (webpage). “Virginia Winters….March 13-14, 1993.”

— 197 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1. (U.S.)

— 79 Direct.

–118 Indirect.

— ~150 Deaths documented in National Weather Storm Data Reports.[8]

— <100 Direct deaths. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993… p.1-1.[9]

— 92 National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). All About Snow. 2016.

— 79 NOAA. “NOAA’s Top U.S. Weather, Water and Climate Events of the 20^th Century.”

Summary of Fatalities by State

Alabama 16

Connecticut 3-5

Delaware 2

District of Columbia 1

Florida 51

Georgia 16

Kentucky 5

Louisiana 1

Maine 2

Maryland 3-4

Mississippi 1

New Jersey 4-7

New York 23

North Carolina 20

Ohio 6

Pennsylvania 52

South Carolina 4

Tennessee 15

Virginia 13

West Virginia >9

U.S. Total 247-253

Canada 4

Cuba 10

North Atlantic 33

International Total 47

Grand Total 294-300

Breakout of Fatalities by State or Area

Alabama ( 16)

— 16 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 16 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p.1.

— 15 Blanchard tally of NCDC figure of 14 and the Birmingham home fire death.

— 14 Direct. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993… 1994, p. B-1.

—>14 March 12-13. Exposure and stress. NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, 35/3, March 1993, p. 8.[10]

–1 Froze to death in home.

–6 Exposure in abandoned or disabled cars.

–7 Exposure outdoors.

–1 Elderly woman found dead on neighbor’s porch.[11]

–1 Male, 69, found dead a few feet from his apartment door.[12]

–1 Waiting in a bus shelter for a bus.

— 14 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 12 NWS WFO, Birmingham, AL. Winter Weather History in Central Alabama. 11-15-2013.

— 1 Birmingham, 12^th. Home Fire, too much wood in fireplace, sub-freezing cold, male, 93.[13]

Connecticut (3-5)

–5 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

–5 Knight-Ridder Tribune. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

–3 Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–1 Bethany, March 13. Male, 84, heart attack in his driveway while shoveling snow.[14]

–1 Danbury. Heart attack, female, 80, while ambulance crew blocked by mile of chest-high snow.[15]

–1 Wallingford, March 13. Male; snowmobile went off the road and hit utility pole.[16]

Delaware ( 2)

— 2 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1. Indirect.

— 2 Newark, March 13-14. “Two…men died of heart attacks while shoveling snow” at home.[17]

District of Columbia ( 1)

— 1 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1. Indirect.

Florida (51)

–51 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14… 1994, p. 1-2.

–29 Direct deaths in FL.[18]

–13 Coastal flooding in predawn hours of March 13.

— 1 Pasco County, 5-8 foot surge; elderly female in home.

–10 Taylor County.[19]

— 2 Not noted where the two were, which would make 13 total.

— 3 Sustained high wind, gusting over 60 mph, after sunrise March 13. P. 1-6.

–1 Brevard County. Male motorist when truck blew over on a bridge. 1-6.

–1 Davie, Broward County, tree blown down; male, 60. P. 1-6.

–1 Pompano Beach. Building wall collapsed onto motorcyclist nearby.

— 1 High wind-generated waterspout, Lake Charles, Highland Co., boater, Mar 14.

— 7 Tornadoes (5 deaths) and downbursts (2), late March 12.

–3 Near Chiefland, Levy County. Females in two residences. Page 1-3.

–1 10M NE of Mt. Dora; boy, 5-months, when mobile home destroyed.

–1 1M from LaCrosse, Alachua Co.. Girl, 5, mobile home destroyed. 1-6.

–1 Downburst. Manatee County near Terra Ceia Bay. Male, 43. P. 1-6.

–1 Downburst. Miami area, Dade Co.. Female, 36, trailer flipped. P.1-6.[20]

— 5 Vessels flooded or capsized by high wind near Gulf coast.

–2 Clearwater, Pinellas Co., sailboat struck bridge supports, capsized. P.1-3.

–2 Homosassa area, Citrus County; drownings from a fishing boat. P.1-3.

–1 Off Honeymoon Island, Pinellas Co. crewman from 38-ft fishing boat.

–11 Gulf of Mexico open water drownings; strong winds/high seas capsized boats and ship.[21]

— 1 Lee County. Man went overboard in Gulf of Mexico off Lee county coast.[22]

— 7 ~50 miles off Ft. Myers, 13^th. From crew of 200-foot Honduran freighter.[23]

—>1 Fishing boat Bone Dry sank about 70 miles west of St. Petersburg.[24]

–11 Post-storm rescue and cleanup efforts.

— 1 Columbia County. Electrocution, 13-year-old.[25]

— 3 Duval County. “Three people died in a storm-related fire.”[26]

— 1 Duval County, Female, 36, killed “in wind-caused traffic fatality.”[27]

— 1 Gilchrist Co. Female killed when her car hit tree blown down by high wind.[28]

— 1 Lake Co., ~Umatilla. Man, 70s, electrocution or cardiac arrest cutting fallen limbs with chain saw.[29]

— 1 Marion Co., Oxford, 15^th. Electrocution; FL Power Corp. lineman, 33.[30]

— 2 Polk County. “…storm-related house fire.” Children 10 and 12.[31]

–48 Blanchard breakout of deaths by locality.

–47 Mar 12-13. AP. “Mean ‘no name’ storm compared to hurricane.” Daily News, FL. 3-28-1993, p13.

–47 NCDC. Storm Events Database. FL, Mar 12-13, Tornadoes, Tstm Wind, Storm Surge.

–11 Gulf of Mexico offshore drownings. Strong winds swamped/capsized boats/ship.

— 7 From crew of 200-foot Honduran freighter.[32]

— 2 Citrus Co., 10 miles from Homosassa, March 13. Drownings from boat.[33]

— 1 Pinellas Co., Honeymoon Island, March 13. Fishing boat crewman drowns.[34]

—>1 Fishing boat Bone Dry sank about 70 miles west of St. Petersburg.[35]

— 4 Flooding.[36]

–1 Hernando County, March 13. Heart attack when attempting to evacuate.[37]

–1 Levy Co., Cedar Key, March 13. Elderly male while evacuating from flood.[38]

–1 Pasco Co., Hudson-Aripeka area, 13^th. Elderly female drowned at home.[39]

— 4 High winds in aftermath of eastward racing 50 mph squall line prior to tornadoes.

–1 Broward Co., Davie, Mar 13. High winds uprooted tree; one person killed.[40]

–1 Broward Co., Pompano Beach. High winds causes bldg. wall collapse.[41]

–2 Clearwater Pass Bridge, March 13. Drownings; sail-boaters; capsized boat.[42]

–11 Rescue operations and cleanup activities.

— 1 Columbia County. Electrocution, 13-year-old.[43]

— 3 Duval County. “Three people died in a storm-related fire.”[44]

— 1 Duval Co., Female, 36, killed “in wind-caused traffic fatality.”[45]

— 1 Gilchrist Co. Female killed when her car hit tree blown down by high wind.[46]

— 1 Lake Co., ~Umatilla. Man, 70s, electrocution or cardiac arrest cutting fallen limbs with chain saw.[47]

— 1 Marion Co., Oxford, 15^th. Electrocution; FL Power Corp. lineman, 33.[48]

–10 Storm Surge. NCDC. Event Record Details, Storm Surge, Florida, 13 Mar 1993.[49]

–9 Dekle Beach, Taylor County.

–1 Keaton Beach, Taylor County.

— 7 Tornadoes and strong downbursts.[50]

–1 Alachua County, LaCrosse, March 13. Girl, 6, F1 destroyed mobile home.[51]

–1 Dade Co., Narrowrowanja, 13^th. Strong downburst overturned mobile home.[52]

–1 Lake County, ~Mt. Dora, March 13, 00:30, F2. Boy, 5-mo., mobile home.[53]

–2 Levy Co., ~Chiefland, 12^th. Two in home.[54] Mother and daughter, about 7.[55]

–1 Levy County, Chiefland, March 12. Elderly person, mobile home.[56]

–1 Manatee Co., 13^th. Drowning; male; evacuating houseboat, strong winds.[57]

–44 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–44 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

–42 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

–42 (12 missing). AP. Storm toll reaches 42 lives…” Daily News, NW FL, 3-17-1993, 3B.

–37 Confirmed dead on land

— 5 Off the Coast.

–10 Boaters lost (missing) in the Gulf of Mexico.

–2 Fishing boat Twister, missing since 13^th.[58]

Blanchard Breakout of fatalities by locality (48 specifically noted):

— 1 Alachua County, 1M from LaCrosse, 13^th. Tornado; girl, 5; mobile home was destroyed.

— 1 Brevard County, 13^th. High wind; male motorist, 18, when truck blew over on a bridge.

— 1 Brevard County. Male, 47, has heart attack while trying to tie boat down; drowns.[59]

— 1 Broward County, Davie, March 13. High wind; tree blown down onto male, 60.

— 1 Broward Co., Pompano Beach, 13^th. High wind; bldg. wall collapsed on motorcyclist.

— 2 Citrus Co., 10M off Homosassa area, 13^th. Drownings when fishing boat flooded/capsized.[60]

— 1 Columbia County. Electrocution, 13-year-old.[61]

— 1 Dade County, Miami area. Downburst, female, 36; trailer/mobile home flipped.

— 3 Duval County. “Three people died in a storm-related fire.”[62]

— 1 Duval County. High wind; female, 36, killed “in wind-caused traffic fatality.”[63]

— 1 Gilchrist County. Female killed when her car hit tree blown down by high wind.[64]

— 1 Hernando County, March 13. Heart attack when attempting to help family evacuate.

— 1 Highland County, Lake Charles, 14^th. High wind-generated waterspout; boater drowned,

— 1 Lake Co., 10M NE of Mt. Dora, 13^th. Tornado; boy, 5-mo., when mobile home destroyed.

— 1 Lake Co., ~Umatilla. Man, 70s, electrocution or cardiac arrest cutting fallen limbs with chain saw.[65]

— 1 Lee County. Man went overboard in Gulf of Mexico off county coast.[66]

— 1 Levy Co., Cedar Key, 13^th. Heart attack; elderly male while leaving storm surge flooding.

— 2 Levy County, Chiefland area, 12^th. Tornado; mother and daughter, about 7 in their home.

— 1 Levy County, Chiefland, March 12. Tornado; elderly person, when mobile home was hit.

— 1 Manatee County near Terra Ceia Bay. Downburst; male, 43.

— 1 Manatee County, March 13. Drowning; male; evacuating houseboat, strong winds.

— 1 Marion County, Oxford, March 15. Electrocution; FL Power Corp. lineman, 33.[67]

— 1 Marion County, Reddick, March 14. Hypothermia; Essie Mae Mitchum, 73.[68]

— 1 Marion County, March 14. Hypothermia, male, 79.[69]

— 1 Pasco Co., Hudson-Aripeka area, 13^th. 5-8 foot surge; drowning, elderly female in home.

— 1 Pasco County, March 12-13. Cardiac arrest “during the storm.” Details not noted.[70]

— 2 Pinellas Co., Clearwater, 13^th. High wind; sailboat hits bridge support, capsized; drownings.

— 1 Pinellas Co., off Honeymoon Island, 13^th. Crewman on 38-ft fishing boat swept overboard.[71]

— 2 Polk County. “…storm-related house fire.” Children 10 and 12.[72]

— 1 Seminole Co., Geneva, 13^th. Male, 16, drowned; wind-blown debris hit his head; fell into family pool.[73]

— 9 Taylor County, Dekle Beach, March 13. Storm surge, residences.

— 1 Taylor County, Keaton Beach, March 13. Storm surge, residences.

— 1 Volusia County. “Motorcyclist, 40-year-old, killed when he hits tree.[74]

— 2 Locations not noted, March 13. Storm Surge.

— 7 Gulf of Mexico, 70 miles off Ft. Myers. Honduran freighter Fantastico crewmembers.

Georgia (16)

–16 NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, pp. 33-34.

— 2 Effingham Co., Effingham, March 13. Under heading of “High Winds.” No detail.[75]

— 8 North Georgia, March 13. Under heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.[76]

–1 Walker County. Two jeeps of eight people stranded – one tried to hike out.[77]

— 5 North Central Georgia, March 13. Under heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.[78]

— 1 West Central Georgia, March 13. Under heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.[79]

–15 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–15 Direct. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993… 1994, p. B-1.

–15 Pavey (Morris News Service). “Blizzard of ’93 called storm of the century.” 3-13-2013.

–14 Northern third of GA.[80]

–14 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

–13 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 0 NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Search Results, All Counties, Georgia, all Types.

— 1 Location not noted, March 13. Exposure; homeless man.[81]

— 1 Location not noted, March 13. Falling tree kills man inspecting house for storm damage.[82]

— 1 Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident, female.[83]

Kentucky ( 5)

–5 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

–5 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–3 Eastern KY. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993… 1994, p. 1-12.

–2 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

–0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. KY. Search Results, All Counties, All Events, March 12-15.

Breakout of fatalities by locality and/or cause of death (where noted):

–1 Whitley Co., March 12-14. Male, 28, froze to death while walking from home to Corbin.[84]

–1 Locality not noted. Heart attack while shoveling snow; male.[85]

–1 Locality not noted. Motor vehicle accident.[86]

Louisiana ( 1)

— 1 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 1 New Orleans, March 14. Exposure; homeless man froze to death in a city park.[87]

Maine ( 2)

— 2 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 2 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

— 2 Couple “killed when their car skidded off a snow covered road…” NWS Survey Report.[88]

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. ME. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Maryland (3-4)

— 4 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” Wisconsin State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 3 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 3 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

— 1 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1 (Direct)

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. MD. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Breakout of fatalities by locality (where noted):

— 1 Baltimore, body found 3 AM, March 14. Exposure; female; after slipping on snowy sidewalk.[89]

— 1 Hyattsville, 13^th. Van hits tractor-trailer stopped, Rt. 50, due to snow conditions. Male, 19.[90]

Mississippi ( 1)

— 1 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 1 Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident on icy bridge kills female.[91]

New Jersey ( 7)

— 7 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

— 6 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

— 4 Statewide. Indirect deaths “during the clean-up phase.” NWS Disaster Survey Report.[92]

— 3 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

New York ( 23)

–23 AP. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10.

–23 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–21 Blanchard tally of locality/cause breakouts below.

–21 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

–20 AP, Rochester, NY. “Heart attacks biggest storm danger.” Post-Star, Glens Falls NY, 3-16-`93, A2.

—>10 Heart attacks while shoveling snow.

— 8 Direct. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1.

— 7 Direct. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993… 1994, p. 1-14/15.

–1 Islip, March 13. Female hit by car that went out-of-control on icy road.

–1 “…man buried by an avalanche while working to free his car from the deep snow.”

–4 Location not noted. Exposure.

–1 Location not noted. Male buried by snow falling off a woodpile in his yard.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. NY. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Breakout of fatalities by location (where noted) or cause:

— 1 Clarksville, Albany County (upstate NY). Male; heart attack while clearing snow.[93]

— 1 Coram, Long Isl. Firefighter called in due to storm; oxygen tank he was filling exploded.[94]

— 1 Cornwall, Storm King Mt. Orange Co., 13^th. Male, 61, killed by avalanche at base of mt.[95]

— 1 Ellis, Tompkins County, March 13. Male, 61, “found dead under a foot of snow…”[96]

— 1 Islip, Suffolk Co., LI, March 13. Female hit by car that went out-of-control on icy road.[97]

— 1 Mayfield, March 13-14. Male buried under 4-5 feet of snow which fell off his woodpile.[98]

— 1 Newburgh, Orange Co., March 13. Female, 84, found dead under snow in front of home.[99]

— 1 Plattsburgh, March 13-14. Exposure; female. NCDC Storm Data, 35/3, March 1993, p. 73.

— 1 Schenectady, Mar 13-14. “man was buried under a foot of snow…” Storm Data, 35/3, 73.

— 2 Kingston, Ulster County. Heart attacks while shoveling snow, one in 40s, one in 60s.[100]

— 1 Westerlo, Albany County (upstate NY). Male; heart attack while clearing snow.[101]

— 1 Western NY, 13^th. Exposure; female, 95, left house to feed birds, locked herself out.[102]

–~3 Western NY, March 13. “Several persons…died in auto accidents related to the storm.”[103]

—>6 Locations not noted. Heart attacks while shoveling snow.[104]

North Carolina (20)

–20 Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–19 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–17 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

–14 Western NC. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993… p. 1-12.

–7 Direct. Elderly persons from exposure to the elements or loss of home heating.

–7 Indirect, including heart attacks from shoveling snow.

— 9 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1.

–2 Direct.

–7 Indirect.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. NC. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Breakout of fatalities by locality:

— 3 Buncombe Co., Mar 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.[105]

— 1 Carteret County, Newport area, March 13. Tree fell on mobile home; boy, 9, killed.[106]

— 2 Clay County. March 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.[107]

— 1 Duplin County, Chinquapin, March 13. Falling tree kills female, 84. NCDC. SD.[108]

— 2 Madison Co., Mar 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.[109]

–~3 Western Foothills and Mts., March 12-14. State Hwy Patrol reported “some” fatalities.[110]

–1 Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident, male killed.[111]

— 7 Western Foothills and Mts., March 13-15. Snow-shoveling heart attack victims. NCDC.[112]

— 1 Wilmington. House fire started by candles in home with power knocked out; female.[113]

Ohio ( 6)

— 6 Eastern OH. Heart attacks while shoveling snow.[114]

Pennsylvania (52)

–52 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. 1-14.

— 4 Direct (exposure).

—<48 Indirect.[115]

–50 Franklin, M. “A Tale of snow and wind…” Evening Sun, Hanover, PA, 3-21-1993, A5.[116]

–50 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

–49 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–42 NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 90.

–40 Eastern PA, 13^th.-14^th. Most due to heart attacks as a result of shoveling snow.

— 2 Northwestern and Northern Mountains. NCDC. Storm Data, V35, N3, 1993, p. 91.

–36 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

–11 Blanchard tally of locality/cause breakouts below.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. PA. Search results all counties all events, March 12-15.[117]

Breakout of fatalities by location or cause:

— 1 Allegheny County, March 13. Male, 80, heart attack while shoveling snow.[118]

— 1 Allegheny County, Pittsburgh. CO poisoning from gas stove, cold apt.; female, 67.[119]

— 1 Armstrong County, Kittanning. Male, 77, “found frozen to death.”[120]

— 1 Butler County, Middlesex Township. Male, 63; body found in snowbank in his driveway.[121]

— 1 Carbon County, young boy killed under collapsing snow bank. NCDC Storm Data 35/3, 90.

— 1 Carbon County, March 13. Heart attack clearing snow; male.[122]

— 1 Carroll Co., Manchester. Heart attack, male, 55; freeing snowmobile from snowdrift.[123]

— 1 Montgomery Co.; exposure, elderly female unable to find way home in snow. Storm Data, 90.

— 1 Westmoreland Co., Rostraver Twp., 13^th. Heart attack while shoveling snow; male, 80.[124]

— 2 Eastern PA, locations not noted. Exposure. NCDC Storm Data 35/3, 90.

South Carolina ( 4)

— 4 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1.

–2 Direct.

–2 Indirect.

— 2 NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 94. (Direct)

— 1 Greer, March 15. Under heading of “Record Cold” notes one death.

— 1 Spartanburg, March 13. Under heading of “Cold/Winds” notes one death.[125]

— 1 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

— 1 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. SC. Search Results, All Counties, All Events, March 12-15

Tennessee (15)

–15 March 12-14. Direct and indirect. NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, 35/3, March 1993, p. 98.[126]

–1 Anderson County. Traffic accident; female.

–1 Bledsoe County. No details noted.

–1 Bradley County. Heart attack.

–1 Grainger County. “…result of a traffic accident blamed on the storm.”

–1 Knox County. Carbon monoxide poisoning; male in car?[127]

–1 Knox County. Exposure.

–2 Loudon County. “…killed due to a mobile home fire blamed on the storm.”

–1 McMinn County. Exposure.

–2 McMinn County. Heart attacks due to shoveling snow.

–1 Scott County. No details noted.

–1 Unicoi County. Female when oxygen supply ran out and snow prevented delivery.

–2 Localities or cause of death not noted.

–15 Eastern TN. NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993…, p. 1-12.

— 2 Direct; exposure.

–13 Indirect.

–14 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

–14 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

–11 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. TN. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Virginia (13)

— 13 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p.1.

— 12 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

— 11 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Rpt. Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1 (Indirect)

— 11 VA DEM. Winter Weather (webpage). “Virginia Winters….March 13-14, 1993.”

— 9 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. VA. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, Mar 12-15.

Breakout of fatalities by locality/area or cause:

— 1 Botetourt Co., 15^th. Exposure, female, in her back yard due to disabling med. cond.[128]

— 1 Reston, northern VA, March 13-14. Heart attack while shoveling snow. NCDC SD.[129]

—>10 Western VA, 13-14^th. “…mainly due to over-exertion and heart attack” clearing snow.[130]

–1 Wise County. Heart attack, male, emergency medical assistance delayed by snow.[131]

— 1 Location not noted. Man killed when hit by car after abandoning his car stuck in snow.[132]

West Virginia (>9)

—>9 Three direct and at least six indirect. NCDC. Storm Data, 35/3, March 1993, p. 118.

— 1 Direct. Cairo, Ritchie County. Male, 69. [133] Walking home, apparently fell; found dead.[134]

— 1 Direct. True area, Summers Co. Exposure, male in 50s. NCDC Storm Data, 35/3, p. 118.

— 1 Direct. Warriormine, McDowell Co., 13^th. Exposure; male, 56, walking through snow.[135]

Indirect:

—>6 “At least a half dozen men…died from overexertion when shoveling the snow.”

— 9 NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993... 1994, p. B-1.

–3 Direct.

–6 Indirect.

— 6 AP. “Two more deaths confirmed in state.” Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV, 3-18-1993, A6.[136]

— 6 Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12.

— 4 Lott. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century.” 1993, p. 1.

— 4 Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

— 0 NCDC. Storm Events Database. KY. Search Results, all Counties, all Events, March 12-15.

Canada ( 4)

–1 Ontario. Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

–3 Quebec. Knight-Ridder. “Destruction from storm mounts.” WI State Journal, 3-17-1993, 3A.

Cuba (10)

–10 Alfonso and Naranjo. “The 13 March 1993 Severe Squall Line over Western Cuba,” p89.[137]

–10 RMS. The 1993 Superstorm: 15-Year Retrospective (Special Report). 8-7-2008, p. 2.[138]

Gulf of Mexico off Florida in international waters ( 5 dead, 16 missing)

— 21 Dead/missing. Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, A12.

North Atlantic (33)

— 33 Freighter Gold Bond Conveyor capsizes March 14, 200 miles south of Nova Scotia.[139]

Causes of Death (U.S.) Summary

Buried by Snowfall/Avalanche: ( 3)

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: ( 2)

Drowning: ( 1)

Drowning (Storm Surge): (13)

Electrocution: ( 3)

Explosion: ( 1)

Exposure/Hypothermia: (45)

Fire: ( 9)

Heart Attack/Cardiac Arrest: (53)

flood-related: ( 2)

snow-related: (50)

not specified: ( 1)

High Wind (24)

on land/in-land): ( 9)

on water near coast: ( 6)

wind/waves (Gulf of Mexico)( 9)

Medical assistance delayed by snow: ( 3)

Tornadoes (5) and Downbursts (2): ( 7)

Tree Fall: (see, also, high wind): ( 3)

Vehicular/Traffic Accidents: (18)

Not specifically or clearly noted: (71)

— 1 AL

— 2 CT

— 1 DC

— 7 GA, northern. March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 5 GA, north central, March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 1 GA, west central, March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 2 KY

— 1 MD

— 4 NJ. Indirect deaths “during the clean-up phase.” NWS Disaster Survey Report.

— 1 NY, Ellis, Tompkins Co., March 13. Male, 61, “found dead under a foot of snow…”

–41 PA (was noted that most were due to outdoor exertion such as clearing snow)

— 2 SC. Indirect.

— 1 TN, Bledsoe County. Cause of death not noted.

— 1 TN, Scott County. No details noted.

— 2 TN, eastern.

Causes of Death (where identified) U.S. Breakout

Buried by Snowfall/Avalanche: ( 3)

–1 NY, Orange Co., Cornwall, Storm King Mt., 13^th. Man killed by avalanche at base of mt.

–1 NY, Mayfield, March 13-14. Male buried under 4-5 feet of snow which fell off his woodpile.

–1 PA, Carbon County, young boy killed under collapsing snow bank.

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: ( 2)

–1 PA, Allegheny County, Pittsburgh. CO poisoning from gas stove, cold apt.; female, 67.

–1 TN, Knox County. Carbon monoxide poisoning; male in car.

Drowning: ( 1)

–1 FL, Brevard County. Male, 47, has heart attack while trying to tie boat down; drowns.

Drowning (Storm Surge): (13)

–13 FL, coastal flooding in predawn hours of March 13.

— 1 Pasco County, Hudson-Aripeka area, 13^th, 5-8 foot surge; elderly female in home.

–10 Taylor County (9 at Dekle Beach and one at Keaton Beach)

— 2 Locations not noted.

Electrocution: ( 3)

–1 FL, Columbia County. Electrocution, 13-year-old.

–1 FL, Lake Co., Umatilla. Man, 70s, electrocution or heart attack cutting fallen limbs with chain saw.[140]

–1 FL, Marion County, Oxford, 15^th. Electrocution; Florida Power Corp. lineman, 33.

Explosion: ( 1)

–1 NY, Coram, Long Isl. Firefighter called in due to storm; oxygen tank he was filling exploded

Exposure/Hypothermia: (45)

Exposure/Hypothermia (in home): ( 8)

–1 AL Froze to death in home.

–3 NC, Buncombe Co., Mar 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.

–2 NC, Clay Co. March 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.

–2 NC, Madison Co., Mar 13-15. Hypothermia; loss of home heating in extreme cold; all 70+.

Exposure/Hypothermia (vehicle related) ( 6)

–6 AL Exposure in abandoned or disabled cars.

Exposure (outdoors) (20)

–7 AL Exposure outdoors.

–1 Elderly woman found dead on neighbor’s porch.

–1 Male, 69, found dead a few feet from his apartment door.

–1 Waiting in a bus shelter for a bus.

–1 FL, Marion County, Reddick, March 14. Hypothermia; Essie Mae Mitchum, 73.[141]

–1 GA, Walker County. Two jeeps of eight people stranded – one died trying to hike out.

–1 KY, Whitley Co., Mar 12-14. Male, 28, froze to death while walking from home to Corbin.

–1 LA, New Orleans, March 14. Exposure; homeless man froze to death in a city park.

–1 MD, Baltimore, body found 14^th 3 AM. Exposure; female; after slipping on snowy sidewalk.

–1 NY, Newburgh, Orange Co., 13^th. Female, 84, found dead under snow in front of home.[142]

–1 NY, Western NY, 13^th. Exposure; female, 95, left house to feed birds, locked herself out.

–1 PA, Butler Co., Middlesex Township. Male, 63; body found in snowbank in his driveway.

–1 PA, Montgomery Co.; exposure, elderly female unable to find way home in snow.

–1 SC, Spartanburg, March 13. Male fell asleep outside nightclub and froze to death.

–1 VA, Botetourt Co., 15^th. Exposure, female, in her back yard due to disabling med. condition.

–1 WV, Direct. Cairo, Ritchie Co.. Male, 69. Walking home, apparently fell; found dead.[143]

–1 WV, Warriormine, McDowell Co., 13^th. Exposure; male, 56, walking through snow.

Exposure (location not noted): (11)

–1 FL, Marion County, March 14. Hypothermia, male, 79.

–1 GA, Location not noted, March 13. Exposure; homeless man.

–1 NY, Plattsburgh, Clinton County, March 13-14. Exposure; female.

–1 NY, Schenectady, Schenectady Co., Mar 13-14. “man was buried under a foot of snow…”[144]

–1 PA, Armstrong County, Kittanning. Male, 77, “found frozen to death.”[145]

–2 PA (eastern), locations not noted. Exposure.

–1 SC, Greer, March 15. Under heading of “Record Cold” notes one direct death.[146]

–1 TN, Knox County. Exposure.

–1 TN, McMinn County. Exposure.

–1 WV, True area, Summers Co. Exposure, male in 50s.

Fire: ( 9)

–1 AL, Birmingham, 12^th. Home Fire, too much fireplace, sub-freezing cold, male, 93.

–3 FL, Duval County. Storm-related fire.

–2 FL, Polk County. “…storm-related house fire.” Children 10 and 12.

–1 NC, Wilmington. House fire started by candles in home with power knocked out; female.

–2 TN, Loudon County. “…killed due to a mobile home fire blamed on the storm.”

Heart Attack/Cardiac Arrest while evacuating from storm-surge flooded area. ( 2)

— 1 FL, Hernando County, March 13. Heart attack, attempting to leave chest-high deep water.

— 1 FL, Levy County, Cedar Key, March 13. Elderly male while evacuating from surge flood.

Heart Attack/Cardiac Arrest related to snow removal: (50)

— 1 CT, Bethany, March 13. Male, 84, heart attack in his driveway while shoveling snow.

— 2 DE, Newark, March 13-14. Males, heart attacks while shoveling snow at homes.

— 1 KY. Locality not noted. Heart attack while shoveling snow; male.

— 1 NY, Clarksville, Albany County (upstate NY). Male; heart attack while clearing snow.

— 2 NY, Kingston, Ulster County. Heart attacks while shoveling snow, one in 40s, one in 60s.

— 1 NY, Westerlo, Albany County (upstate NY). Male; heart attack while clearing snow.

— 6 NY. Locations not noted. Heart attacks while shoveling snow.[147]

— 7 NC, Western Foothills and Mts., March 13-15. Snow-shoveling heart attack victims.

— 6 OH (eastern). Heart attacks while shoveling snow.

— 1 PA, Allegheny County, March 13. Male, 80, heart attack while shoveling snow.

— 1 PA, Carbon County, March 13. Heart attack clearing snow; male.

— 1 PA, Carroll Co., Manchester. Heart attack, male, 55; freeing snowmobile from snowdrift.

— 1 PA, Westmoreland Co., Rostraver Twp., 13^th. Heart attack while shoveling snow; male, 80.

— 1 TN, Bradley County. Heart attack.

— 2 TN, McMinn County. Heart attacks due to shoveling snow.

— 1 VA, Reston, northern VA, March 13-14. Heart attack while shoveling snow.

–~9 Western VA, 13-14^th. “…mainly due to over-exertion and heart attack” clearing snow.[148]

—>6 “At least a half dozen men…died from overexertion when shoveling the snow.”

Heart Attack/Cardiac Arrest (circumstances not noted): ( 1)

— 1 FL, Pasco County, March 12-13. Cardiac arrest “during the storm.” Details not noted.

High Wind (on land and in-land): ( 9)

–1 FL, Brevard County, March 13. Male motorist, 18, when truck blown over on a bridge.

–1 FL, Broward County, Davie, March 13. Tree blown down; male, 60.

–1 FL, Broward County, Pompano Beach. Building wall collapsed onto motorcyclist nearby.

–1 FL, Duval County, Female, 36, killed “in wind-caused traffic fatality.”[149]

–1 FL, Highland County, Lake Charles. March 14. High wind-generated waterspout, boater.

–1 FL, Gilchrist County. Female killed when her car hit tree blown down by high wind.[150]

–1 FL, Seminole Co., Geneva, 13^th. Male, 16, drowns; wind-blown debris hits head; fell in family pool.

–2 FL, Effingham Co., Effingham, March 13. Under heading of “High Winds.” No detail.

High Wind and Rough Water (on water near coast): ( 6)

–2 FL, Citrus Co., 10M off Homosassa, 13^th. Drownings; fishing boat flooded or capsized.[151]

–2 FL, Pinellas Co., Clearwater Pass. Sailboat struck bridge supports, capsized, couple drown.

–1 FL, 7 miles off Honeymoon Island, Pinellas County. Crewman from 38-ft fishing boat.

–1 FL, Manatee Co., Terra Ceia Bay, 13^th. Male, 43; drowns evacuating houseboat in high wind.[152]

High Wind and Waves (Gulf of Mexico): ( 9)

— 7 Gulf, about 50 miles off Ft. Myers, FL, 13^th. From crew of 200-foot Honduran freighter.[153]

—>1 Gulf, about 70 miles west of St. Petersburg (Pinellas Co). Fishing boat Bone Dry sank.

— 1 FL, Lee County. Man went overboard in Gulf of Mexico off county coast.

Medical emergency death related to delay of assistance due to snow-blocked roads: ( 3)

–1 CT, Danbury. Heart attack, female, 80; ambulance blocked by mile of chest-high snow.

–1 TN, Unicoi County. Female when oxygen supply ran out and snow prevented delivery.

–1 VA, Wise County. Heart attack, male, emergency medical assistance delayed by snow.

Tornadoes (5) and Downbursts (2): ( 7)

–2 FL, Levy County, ~Chiefland, 12^th. Tornado; mother and daughter, about 7 in their home.

–1 FL, Levy County, Chiefland, March 12. Tornado; elderly person; mobile home was hit.

–1 FL, 10 miles northeast of Mount Dora, 12^th. Tornado; boy, 5-mo., mobile home destroyed.

–1 FL, Alachua County, 1 mile from LaCrosse, 12^th. Tornado; girl, 5, mobile home destroyed.

–1 FL, Terra Ceia Bay area, Manatee County, 12^th. Downburst; male, 43, drowns.[154]

–1 FL, Miami area, Dade County. Downburst; female, 36, when her mobile home flipped.

Tree Fall: (See, also, high wind.) ( 3)

–1 GA. Location not noted, March 13. Falling tree kills man inspecting house for storm damage

–1 NC, Carteret County, Newport area, March 13. Tree fell on mobile home; boy, 9, killed.

–1 NC, Duplin County, Chinquapin, March 13. Female, 84, killed by falling tree.

Vehicular/Traffic Accidents: (18)

–1 CT, Wallingford, March 13. Male; snowmobile went off the road and hit utility pole.

–1 FL, Volusia County. “Motorcyclist, 40-year-old, killed when he hits tree.

–1 GA. Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident, female.

–1 KY. Locality not noted. Motor vehicle accident.

–1 MS. Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident on icy bridge kills female.

–2 ME. Couple “killed when their car skidded off a snow covered road…” NWS Survey Report.

–1 MD, Hyattsville, Rt. 50, 13^th. Van hits tractor-trailer stopped due to snow conditions. Male, 19.

–1 NY, Islip, Suffolk Co., LI, March 13. Female hit by car that went out-of-control on icy road.

–3 NY (western), March 13. “Several persons…died in auto accidents related to the storm.”

–3 NC, Western Foothills and Mts., March 12-14. State Hwy Patrol reported “some” fatalities.

–1 Location not noted, March 13. Traffic accident, male killed.

–1 TN, Anderson County. Traffic accident; female.

–1 TN, Grainger County. “…result of a traffic accident blamed on the storm.”

–1 VA. Location not noted. Man killed when hit by car after abandoning his car stuck in snow.

Not Noted: (71)

— 1 AL

— 2 CT

— 1 DC

— 7 GA, northern. March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 5 GA, north central, March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 1 GA, west central, March 13. Under NCDC heading of “Blizzard” – no detail.

— 2 KY

— 1 MD

— 4 NJ. Indirect deaths “during the clean-up phase.” NWS Disaster Survey Report.

— 1 NY, Ellis, Tompkins County, March 13. Male, 61, “found dead under a foot of snow…”[155]

–41 PA (though it was noted that most were due to outdoor exertion such as clearing snow).

— 2 SC. Indirect.

— 1 TN, Bledsoe County. Cause of death not noted.

— 1 TN, Scott County. No details noted.

— 2 TN, eastern.

Narrative Information — General

Grabianowski: “In 1993, an early March storm surged up the east coast of the United States, unleashing snow and wind on a wider area than any other storm in recorded history. Massive snowfalls were recorded from eastern Canada to Alabama. Parts of 26 states were hit; roughly half of the entire U.S. population was affected, including many large cities [source: NOAA]. Two hundred and seventy Americans were killed. This storm is often compared to the Blizzard of 1888 — in many areas, it wasn’t as severe and didn’t drop as much snow, but it covered a much larger area.

“This storm broke numerous weather records. A low temperature of minus 12 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 24.4 degrees Celsius) was recorded at Burlington, Vt., while even Daytona Beach, Fla., felt the effects, with a low of 31 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 0.56 degrees Celsius). Birmingham, Ala., received more than a foot of snow (30.5 cm), with four inches (10.2 cm) falling as far south as Atlanta, Ga. Snowfall totals were amplified farther north — Syracuse, N.Y. got more than 40 inches (1.02 m), for example. Mountainous areas in the Appalachians and Catskills got the most snow, with recorded totals of 50 inches (1.27 m) or more. Wind speeds topped 70 mph (112.7 kph) in many places, and topped 100 mph (161 kph) in a few locations. Using storm surge and barometric pressure data, meteorologists say the Storm of the Century was the equivalent of a category three hurricane; it ranked a 13.2 on the NESIS scale.” (Grabianowski, Ed. “10 Biggest Snowstorms of All Time.” Howstuffworks.com.)

Lott, 1993: “On March 12-15, a storm now called ‘The Storm of the Century’ struck the eastern seaboard….

“1) The preliminary death toll for the U.S. is approximately 270, and 48 people were reported as missing at sea (Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic, including Canadian waters). This is over 3 times the combined death toll of 79 attributed to hurricanes Hugo and Andrew. The death toll includes those caused by direct and indirect (e.g., shoveling snow) results of the storm….

“2) Thousands of people were isolated by record snowfalls, especially in the Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia mountains. Over 200 hikers were rescued from the North Carolina and Tennessee mountains. Curfews were enforced in many counties and cities as ‘states of emergency’ were declared. The National Guard was deployed in many areas to protect lives and property. Generally, all interstate highways from Atlanta northward were closed. For the first time, every major airport on the east coast was closed at one time or another by the storm….

“3) For the first time, every major airport on the east coast was closed at one time or another by the storm. The Asheville, NC airport was closed for 3 days. Snowfall rates of 2-3 inches per hour were common during the height of the storm. Generally, New York’s Catskill Mountains along with most of the central and southern Appalachians received at least 2 feet of snow. In areas to the east, wind-driven sleet occurred in some areas, with central New Jersey reporting 2.5 inches of sleet on top of 12 inches of snow–somewhat of an “ice-cream sandwich” affect.

“4) Hundreds of roof collapses occurred due to the weight of the heavy wet snow. Over 3 million customers were without electrical power at one time due to fallen trees and high winds.

“5) At least 18 homes fell into the sea on Long Island due to the pounding surf. About 200 homes along North Carolina’s Outer Banks were damaged and may be uninhabitable. Over 160 people were rescued at sea by the Coast Guard in the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic. At least 1 freighter sank in the Gulf of Mexico.

“6) Florida was struck by an estimated 15 tornadoes, and 44 deaths in Florida were attributed either to the tornadoes or other severe weather. A 12-foot storm surge occurred in Taylor County, FL resulting in at least 7 deaths. Also, up to 6 inches of snow fell in the Florida panhandle.

“7) 3 storm-related deaths were reported in Quebec and 1 in Ontario. About 110 miles south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, a 177-meter ship sank in heavy seas, with all 33 of its crew lost at sea. 65-foot waves were reported in the area. Also, a wind gust of 131 MPH occurred at Grand Etang, Nova Scotia. Some parts of northern New Brunswick experienced temperature drops of 45 degrees Fahrenheit in 18 hours. 3 deaths occurred in Cuba (Havana was blacked out), and a tornado left 5000 people homeless in Reynosa, Mexico (near Texas border)….” (Lott, Neal. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century” (Technical Report 93-01). NOAA NCDC, Research Customer Service Group, May 14, 1993.)

NOAA: “A gigantic low pressure system screamed up the eastern seaboard, bringing everything from a storm surge to the western coastline of Florida to nearly 60 inches of snow in some parts of the Appalachian. This storm will long be remembered for paralyzing the entire eastern seaboard, at one point shutting down every airport on the Washington/Boston corridor. The superstorm was responsible for 79 direct deaths and more than 600 injuries, along with $2 billion in damage. It was one of the most well-forecasted storms in history, with timely warnings that limited the death toll of this fierce weather system.” (“NOAA’s Top U.S. Weather, Water and Climate Events of the 20^th Century.”

NWS: “This extremely intense and massive storm tracked from the western Gulf of Mexico to the Florida Panhandle and up the eastern seaboard to Massachusetts (lowest pressure at one point was under 960 mb). A huge area had tremendous snow amounts, some of record proportions. This storm dumped the most snow in the largest area than ever before. Amounts ranged from a foot in southern Alabama to over 40 inches in the state of New York. In the mountains along the Tennessee / North Carolina border a whopping 60 inches fell! Winds of 70 mph were common across this large area with drifts to 20 feet high. Nearly 300 deaths were blamed on this storm due to the severity and large area affected.” (National Weather Service Milwaukee/Sullivan Weather Forecast Office. 2005)

Alabama

NCDC Storm Data, March 12-13 Winter Storm: “What most called the worst winter storm in Alabama history struck Friday afternoon and lasted until mid-day Saturday. Snow began falling over north Alabama Friday afternoon, then spread southward overnight, reaching all the way to the Gulf Coast. The storm was caused by a strong and massive low pressure system that moved from the western Gulf of Mexico into the Florida panhandle, and up the Eastern Seaboard. The heaviest snow began after midnight when northerly winds of 40 to 55 mph became common…. By mid-day Saturday snow had accumulated to 6 to 12 inches over North Alabama and 2 to 4 inches at the Gulf Coast. A 40-mile-wide band of 12 to 20 inches fell from the Birmingham area northeastward to DeKalb and Cherokee counties, generally following the Appalachian Mountains. High winds combined with the heavy wet snow, felled numerous trees and knocked down power lines over a wide area. Numerous roads became impassable, and hundreds of thousands of homes were without power. It was estimated that 400,000 homes were without electricity, and many remained so for several days. Compounding the snow and power problems, temperatures fell well into the single digits and teens across much of the state Saturday night. For example, the temperature at the Birmingham Airport fell to 2 degrees, the coldest March temperature ever recorded….The snow and high winds knocked many radio and television stations off the air, and severely hampered emergency personnel responding to fires, stranded motorists, and those in dire need of medical attention. As if the snow, high winds, and extreme cold were not enough, many large trees fell onto homes and businesses. Numerous awnings, and roofs collapsed under the weight of the heavy snow….” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 8.)

Connecticut

NCDC Storm Data, March 14: “A powerful east coat storm set record and near record low barometric pressure readings as it tracked very rapidly north-northeast from the Florida panhandle to central Massachusetts within 24 hours, It’s center moved through central Connecticut. The state was hit with blizzard condition….Snowfall across the state ranged from about 8 inches at Norwich in the southeast to 21 inches in the northwest hills….In the wake of the passage of the low enter on Sunday morning, March 14^th, heavy snow squalls occurred as arctic cold replaced the mild air. Gale force easterly winds gusting to 60 mph blew the snow into drifts several feet deep and made roads impassable for several hours during the height of the blizzard….Up to 40,000 electric customers were without power but most power was restored within 6 to 12 hours….” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 15.)

Delaware

NCDC Storm Data, March 13-14: “….Blizzard condition were produced over a large part of Virginia, Maryland, The District of Columbia, as well as the eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. Snowfall amounts ranged from 1 to 3 inches in the coastal plain from southern Delaware, across southeast parts of Maryland and Virginia. Three to fifteen inches of snow was recorded from Northeast Delaware, across east and central Maryland and the District of Columbia….The storm dumped more than a foot of snow on the northern half of the State and drenched Sussex County. Heavy snow turned to rain and sleet in many parts of Delaware Saturday afternoon….Winds gusted to around 60 mph and caused scattered damage and fallen trees and power lines….” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 16.)

Florida

NCDC Storm Events Database: “Tornadoes, Thunderstorm Winds, Hail, Storm Surge, Flooding, Beach Erosion, Snow.

“The “Storm Of The Century” roared across Florida producing a variety of severe and unusual weather conditions for a period of about 18 hours from late Friday the 12th through late afternoon Saturday the 13th. A severe squall line raced eastward at 50 mph ahead of an intense low producing several tornadoes and strong downbursts as it moved through the state and directly caused seven fatalities. This was followed by a hitherto unknown (for the Gulf Coast) winter storm surge of 9 to 12 feet onto the gulf coast in Taylor County, with storm surges and/or tidal and wind driven flooding of 5 to 9 feet elsewhere along the gulf coast of the state and into the lower Keys. This was followed by a period of 8 to 12 hours of high sustained winds of up to 50 mph with gusts to 70 mph, keeping tides much above normal along the west coast and causing severe beach erosion in many areas. Total number of fatalities from the storm was 47, including 14 from storm surge and flooding, seven from tornadoes and/or strong downbursts, and four from high winds in the aftermath of the squall line. Eleven people drowned offshore in the Gulf of Mexico after strong winds swamped or capsized ships (including seven crewmen from a 200-foot Honduran freighter). Eleven others died during rescue operations and cleanup activities. Meanwhile, colder air poured in behind the intense low with up to four inches of snow falling in the panhandle from north of Pensacola to Crestview, and a trace to 3 inches elsewhere across north Florida. Record or near record low temperatures occurred over much of the state the following two nights. Total property damage was estimated at $1.6 billion.” (NCDC. Storm Events Database, Event Record Details, Tornadoes, Tstm Wind, Hail, Florida, 13 Mar 1993.”)

Florida: “A 10- to 12-foot storm surge moved into the coast destroying 57 residences. Ten people were killed, nine at Dekle Beach and one at Keaton Beach.” (NCDC. Storm Events Database, Event Record Details, Storm Surge, Florida, 13 Mar 1993.)

Georgia

NCDC Storm Data, March 12-13 Heavy Snow: “An intense late winter storm moving northeast from the Gulf of Mexico began producing light snow around 2200 EST over the extreme north Georgia mountains. By 0200 EST, the snow was falling at a rate of 1 inch per hour with accumulations of 5 inches reported over extreme northwest Georgia….Most secondary roads had become impassable across north Georgia by sunrise while primary roads were limited primarily to emergency travel.” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 32.)

Kentucky

NCDC Storm Data, March 12-14 Blizzard: “One of the strongest Winter Storms of the century dumped from 6 to 30 inches of snow over eastern and southeastern Kentucky. The snow combined with winds to produce snow drifts from 6 to 10 feet. Interstate 75 was closed from Lexington to the Tennessee border and Interstate 64 was closed from Lexington to the West Virginia border. Both roads were closed for 2 days. Between 3,000 and 4,000 motorists were stranded along the highways. Emergency shelters were set up in Ashland and London….” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 47.)

New Jersey

NWS Natural Disaster Survey Report: “As much as 26 inches of snow fell in interior sections of northern New Jersey while 12-15 inches were more common elsewhere in the state. Coastal flooding of 6-9 feet was experienced causing some beach erosion. There were four fatalities from the storm, all indirectly caused during the clean up phase….” (NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-14.)

New York

NWS Natural Disaster Survey Report: “Southeastern New York and Long Island were…hit hard with up to 20 inches falling on interior areas of the region. Lesser, but significant, amounts fell on the coast. The snow changed to rain or mixed with sleet and rain near the coast in the afternoon [March 13]. Over 200,000 homes were without power due to the high winds and there were major disruptions to travel. Thirty beach front homes on eastern Long Island at West Hampton were washed into the sea. Two deaths related to the storm include a woman struck by an out of control car in Islip, and a man buried by an avalanche while working to free his car from the deep snow.

“Blizzard conditions were common across the interior sections of New York with very low visibilities Saturday afternoon [13^th]. Snowfall amounts ranged as high as 40 inches in the Adirondack Mountains….there were five deaths directly related to the event in interior New York. Four of these were due to exposure while the last was caused by snow falling off a woodpile and burying a man in his yard….Tens of thousands of people were without electricity due to downed power lines….” (NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-14/15.)

Ohio

NWS Natural Disaster Survey Report: “Blizzard conditions continued northward [from WV] through eastern Ohio and caused eight injuries and $2.75 million in property damage. Six persons died from heart attacks while shoveling snow. A State of Emergency was declared in 25 counties in eastern Ohio for 2 days prohibiting all travel. Hundreds of motorists were stranded; local residents and shelters provided refuge for them. The National Guard and Army reserve units were called in to assist in storm relief efforts. Snowfall totals ranged from 5 inches in Columbus to 22 inches in Ironton. The snow, driven by wind gusts over 35 mph, drifted up to 12 feet near Steubenville.” (NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-13.)

Pennsylvania

NWS Natural Disaster Survey Report: “….Some snowfall reports were 36 inches at Latrobe, 27 inches at State College, and 24 inches at Dubois. All airports and highways were closed for a time, and the Governor declared a State of Emergency Saturday afternoon [13^th] that remained in effect through the following week….The highest recorded wind gust was 66 mph at Philadelphia International Airport.” (NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-14.)

Virginia

PHMPC: “The “Superstorm of March ’93” was also known as “The Storm of the Century” for the eastern United States, due to its large area of impact, all the way from Florida and Alabama through New England. As the storm’s center crossed Virginia, weather stations recorded their lowest pressure ever. Unlike most big winter storms that move up the coast, this storm took a more inland track across Richmond and the Chesapeake Bay. It brought rain and some high winds to Southeast Virginia and heavy snow and blizzard conditions over portions of the north and west. Eleven people died in Virginia from over-exertion and heart attacks shoveling snow or from exposure and hypothermia. Snow removal and clean-up costs were estimated at 16 million dollars statewide.” (Peninsula Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee (VA). Peninsula Multi-Jurisdictional Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan: Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000. 2006, p. 32.)

NCDC Storm Data, March 12-13: “Massive in scope best describes this late winter storm. It was the most widespread deep snow to affect West Virginia, at least since World War II. The November 1950 storm did not bring heavy snow to the eastern panhandle. Every county reported at least a foot of snow on the ground from the one-and-a-half day storm. Increases in snow depth from 16 to 24 inches were most common. The most snowfall was 34 inches from Pickens in Randolph County….Sustained winds of 15 to 30 mph with stronger gusts blew during the afternoon of the 13^th and into the early morning hours of the 14^th. Temperatures fell from the 20s into the teens during the storm. The dry snow was blown into drifts of 10 to 12 feet in the mountains….Travel came to a complete stop by late afternoon on the 13^th….” (NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 118.)

Cuba

Alfonso and Naranjo abstract: “On 13 March 1993 a powerful prefontal squall line hit western and central Cuba. At 0000 UTC, a fast-developing extratropical cyclone with a well-defined cold front was located in the northeast Gulf of Mexico. Over the eastern Gulf of Mexico there was a 300-hPa jet streak interacting with a low-level jet. A hodograph typically associated with supercells or severe squall lines was observed at Key West, Florida. The air mass over the eastern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and Cuba was conditionally unstable. Instability was enhanced by moist air at the surface interacting with a dry intrusion in the midtroposphere from the Mexican Plateau. Lifting induced by a strong short-wave trough favored the formation a compact squall line with embedded bow-echoes and line-echo wave patterns. Damaging winds were widespread with the squall line. Thus, the event fits the definition of a serial derecho. One of the two bow echoes that affected Cuba included a small but strong mesocyclone in its forward flank, as detected by radar and surface observations. The mesocyclone caused great damage in a 20-km-wide strip over the Havana and Havana City provinces, producing a family of downbursts in its southern portion. Estimated damage up to F2 on the Fujita scale was experienced in the effected area. Another bow echo struck the central region of Cuba producing similar damage. The squall line event described in this study is the most damaging one ever recorded in Cuba.” (Alfonso, A. P. and L. R. Naranjo. “The 13 March 1993 Severe Squall Line over Western Cuba.” Weather and Forecasting, Vol. 11 (AMS), March 1996, p. 89 of 89-102.)

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Alfonso, A. P. and L. R. Naranjo. “The 13 March 1993 Severe Squall Line over Western Cuba.” Weather and Forecasting, Vol. 11 (American Meteorological Society), March 1996, pp. 89-102. Accessed 4-6-2016 at: http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0434%281996%29011%3C0089%3ATMSSLO%3E2.0.CO%3B2

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Associated Press (Yvette H. Blackman). “10 killed in New York state.” Post-Star, Glen Falls, NY, 3-15-1993, A3. Accessed 3-31-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=296802445&sterm

Associated Press (Ric Leyva). “East Coast struggles to get to work today.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. 3-15-1993, p. 1. Accessed 3-27-2013 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=112035634&sterm

Associated Press, Rochester, NY. “Heart attacks biggest storm danger.” Post-Star, Glens Falls, NY, 3-16-1993, A2. Accessed 3-30-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=296802476&sterm

Associated Press, Coral Gables, FL. “Mean ‘no name’ storm compared to hurricane.” Northwest Florida Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, 3-28-1993, p. 13. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/fort-walton-beach/northwest-florida-daily-news/1993/03-28/page-13?tag

Associated Press (Brent Laymon). “Monster Storm.” The Progress, Clearfield, PA. 3-13-1993, pp. 1 & 7. Accessed 3-30-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=151318210&sterm

Associated Press (Melissa B. Robinson). “Pennsylvania may get $45 million in storm relief.: The Progress, Clearfield, PA, 3-18-1993, p. 1. Accessed 3-30-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=151318321&sterm

Associated Press, Knoxville, TN. “Rangers find 11 hikers; search for more goes on.” Stars and Stripes, Hesse, Darmstadt, Germany, 3-19-1993, p. 6. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=133650486&sterm

Associated Press. “State by state storm damage.” Syracuse Herald-Journal, NY. 3-17-1993, p. A10. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=27429289&sterm

Associated Press (Nick Jesdanun). “Storm already responsible for five deaths in South.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA, 3-13-1993, p. 1. Accessed 3-27-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=112035590&sterm

Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Accessed 3-29-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=296421717&sterm

Associated Press, Gatlinburg. “Storm rescue ends happily.” Leader-Call, Laurel, MS. 3-19-1993, p.1. Accessed 3-30-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=227604971&sterm

Associated Press (Richard Cole). “Storm toll reaches 42 lives, $1 billion.” Northwest Florida Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, 3-17-1993, 3B. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/fort-walton-beach/northwest-florida-daily-news/1993/03-17/page-15?tag

Associated Press. “Two more deaths confirmed in state.” Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV, 3-18-1993, A6. Accessed 4-1-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=230069520&sterm

Associated Press, Pittsburgh. “Unlit gas oven causes death.” New Castle News, PA, 3-16-1993, p. 2. Accessed 3-30-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=228692316&sterm

Associated Press, Chiefland, FL. “Winter storm kills at least 13 across the state.” Key West Citizen, 3-14-1993, 3A. Accessed 3-27-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=297665681&sterm

Bixby, Lyn. “Blizzard of March 1993.” The Hartford Courant, CT, 11-21-2001. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://www.courant.com/entertainment/hc-winter-storm031593-story.html

Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3. Accessed 3-31-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=230069400&sterm

Buckley, Christopher, and Karen Peters. “Mid-Mon Valley area is digging out today.” Monessen Valley Independent, PA, 3-17-1993, p. 2. Accessed 3-30-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=24714990&sterm

Divespots.com. “Fantastico.” Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://www.divespots.com/scuba-diving-spots/florida/naples/spots/fantastico

Franklin, Mark (Sunday Editor). “A Tale of snow and wind; rescues, heroes and babies.” Evening Sun, Hanover, PA, 3-21-1993, p. A-5. Accessed 3-30-3016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=295983626&sterm

Galvin, John. “Superstorm: Eastern and Central U.S., March 1993. Popular Mechanics, 12-17-2009. Accessed 3-27-2016: http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a1971/4219886/

Grabianowski, Ed. “10 Biggest Snowstorms of All Time.” Howstuffworks.com. Accessed 12-28-2012: http://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/climate-weather/storms/10-biggest-snowstorms.htm

Guinness, Meredith, Thomson News Service. “Storm of `88 – 1888, that is – still considered worse.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, MD, 3-21-1993, p. 14A. Accessed 3-30-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=183786327&sterm

Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. “County suffers along with entire eastern coast.” 3-14-1993, p. A-6. Accessed 3-27-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=110439481&sterm

IT1me.com. 1993 Storm of the Century. Accessed 3-27-2016 at: http://www.it1me.com/learn?s=1993_Storm_of_the_Century

Knight-Ridder Tribune (Ron Coddington). “Destruction from storm mounts.” Wisconsin State Journal, Madison, 3-17-1993, 3A. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=164420006&sterm

Leereefs.org. “Major Shipwrecks.” Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://leereefs.org/major-shipwrecks/

Lott, Neal. The Big One! A Review of the March 12-14, 1993 “Storm of the Century” (Technical Report 93-01). National Climatic Data Center, Research Customer Service Group, May 14, 1993. Accessed at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/blizzard/blizz.txt

Lott, Neal and Tom Ross. Tracking and Evaluating U.S. Billion Dollar Weather Disasters, 1980-2005. Asheville, NC: NOAA, National Climatic Data Center, 10-27-2005, 6 pages. Accessed at: http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/100686.pdf

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U. S. Department of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-E7726AB5-AC37-429C-99E7-7DF20E5E80F1.pdf

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Search Results for All Counties in Georgia, All Available Event Types, March 12-14, 1993. NCDC, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. At: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/listevents.jsp?eventType=ALL&beginDate_mm=03&beginDate_dd=12&beginDate_yyyy=1993&endDate_mm=03&endDate_dd=14&endDate_yyyy=1993&county=ALL&hailfilter=0.00&tornfilter=0&windfilter=000&sort=DT&submitbutton=Search&statefips=13%2CGEORGIA

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Kentucky. Search Results for All Counties, All Available Event Types, March 12-15, 1993. NCDC, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/listevents.jsp?eventType=ALL&beginDate_mm=03&beginDate_dd=12&beginDate_yyyy=1993&endDate_mm=03&endDate_dd=15&endDate_yyyy=1993&county=ALL&hailfilter=0.00&tornfilter=0&windfilter=000&sort=DT&submitbutton=Search&statefips=21%2CKENTUCKY

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Storm Surge, Florida, 13 March 1993. NCDC, NOAA, Department of Commerce. Accessed 2-3-2009 at: http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~196170

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Thunderstorm Wind, Florida, Manatee County, Terra Ceia Bay, 3-13-1993. NCDC, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10320046

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Thunderstorm Wind, Florida, Miami-Dade County, Narrowrowanja, 3-13-1993, 04:52 EST. NCDC, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10317727

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornadoes, Thunderstorm Wind, Hail Storm Surge, Flooding, Beach Erosion, Snow. FL, March 12-13, 1993. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10317829

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Alachua County, LaCrosse, 3-13-1993, 20:00, F1. NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10318064

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Lake County, Mt. Dora, 3-13-1993, 00:30 EST, F2. NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10320155

National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Levy County, March 12, 1993, 23:38 EST. NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed 3-26-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=10319983

National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). All About Snow. 2016. Accessed 2-26-2009 at: http://www.nsidc.org/snow/shovel.html

National Weather Service. Natural Disaster Survey Report. Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. Silver Spring, MD: NWS, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, May 1994. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://140.90.113.200/os/assessments/pdfs/Superstorm_March-93.pdf

National Weather Service (Tim Armstrong). Superstorm of 1993. “Storm of the Century,” March 12-14, 1993. Wilmington, NC: NWS, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, page created 2-23-2013, last modified 3-7-2016. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://www.weather.gov/ilm/Superstorm93

National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, Milwaukee/Sullivan, WI. Biggest Snow Storms in the United States From 1888 to Present (Excluding the Mountains of the West and Lake-Effect Snows). NOAA, NWS, 11-2-2005. At: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/mkx/climate/big.php

National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, Birmingham, AL. Winter Weather History in Central Alabama (webpage). 11-15-2013 modification. Accessed 6-29-2014 at: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/bmx/?n=outreach_wwawpnsday1

New York Times (Robert D. McFadden). “The Blizzard of ’93: The Overview; Storm Paralyzes East Coast; Snow Covers South; 33 killed.” 3-14, 1993. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/14/nyregion/blizzard-93-overview-storm-paralyzes-east-coast-snow-covers-south-33-killed.html?pagewanted=all

Ocala Star-Banner, FL. “Storm hits Big Sun with awesome power, fury.” 3-21-1993, p. 7. Accessed 3-31-2016 at: https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1356&dat=19930321&id=C6dAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0wcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5589,56595&hl=en

Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA. “At A Glance.” 3-18-1993, p. A12. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=194408702&sterm

Pavey, Rob. (Morris News Service). “Blizzard of ’93 called storm of the century.” 3-13-2013. Accessed 3-29-2016: http://onlineathens.com/local-news/2013-03-13/blizzard-93-called-storm-century

Peninsula Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee (VA). Peninsula Multi-Jurisdictional Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan: Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000. Richmond, VA: January 2006, 313 pp. At: http://www.yorkcounty.gov/fls/MitPlan/Peninsula_Natural_Hazards_Mitiation_Plan.pdf

RMS Risk Management Solutions, Inc. The 1993 Superstorm: 15-Year Retrospective (RMS Special Report). RMS, 8-7-2008, 11 p. Accessed 4-6-2016 at: http://forms2.rms.com/rs/729-DJX-565/images/wtr_1993_superstorm_15_retrospective.pdf

Shuey, P.J. “Area digs out after the big one.” The Capital, Annapolis, MD, 3-15-1993, p. 1. Accessed 3-30-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=26343303&sterm

Smothers, Ronald. “The Blizzard of ’93: The South; Regions Used to the Sun Took the Severest Blows.” New York Times, 3-15-1993. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/15/us/the-blizzard-of-93-the-south-regions-used-to-the-sun-took-the-severest-blows.html?pagewanted=all

The News, Frederick, MD. “Death Toll” (continued from A-1). 3-15-1993, p. A-8. Accessed 3-30-2016: http://newspaperarchive.com/fullpagepdfviewer?img=33753182&sterm=storm

UPI [United Press International]. “Coast Guard rescues 235 people from storm.” 3-15-1993. Accessed 3-29-2016 at: https://www.google.com/#q=dunedin+fl

UPI [United Press International]. “Six dead, 11 missing in waters off Florida.” 3-16-1993. Accessed 3-30-2016 at: http://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/03/16/Six-dead-11-missing-in-waters-off-Florida/9455732258000/

Virginia Department of Emergency Management. Winter Weather (webpage). “Virginia Winters….March 13-14, 1993.” Accessed 3-27-2016 at: http://www.vaemergency.gov/news/history/winter

Wikipedia. “1993 Storm of the Century.” 3-27-2016 modification. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Storm_of_the_Century#cite_note-American-8

Additional Reading:

Kocin, Paul J., et al. (National Weather Service, National Meteorological Center, Camp Springs, MD). “Overview of the 12-14 March 1993 Superstorm.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Vol. 76, No. 2, Feb 1995, pp. 165-182. Accessed 3-28-2016 at: http://www.weather.gov/media/ilm/Overview_Kocin_Schumacher_Morales_Uccelini.pdf

[1] Sometimes referred to as the “Superstorm of 1993,” or the “Storm of the Century.”

[2] We readily admit that it is difficult to follow various reports of known deaths from missing and presumed deaths, as well as, sometimes, to know whether figures being presented are for the U.S. alone or all storm-related deaths. Thus we may be leaving out some missing and presumed deaths in the Gulf or elsewhere.

[3] We have not been able to determine how the estimates of 270 and 318 were formulated. We speculate they incorporated other than U.S. and perhaps missing.

[4] Atlanta Journal Constitution, 3-13-2013.

[5] AP, Knoxville, TN. “Rangers find 11 hikers; search for more goes on.” Stars and Stripes, 3-19-1993, p. 6. The missing were noted as the crew of 32 of the freighter which sank in the North Atlantic off Nova Scotia, and “16 mariners lost in waters around Florida.”

[6] Lott notes that additionally, “48 people were reported as missing at sea (Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic, including Canadian waters).”

[7] Excerpt in: NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 7-19.

[8] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-15. Goes on to note that “…indirect deaths and damage/clean up costs…can not be determined accurately using the existing procedures. Timeliness of the reports and accuracy of some of the information, particularly regarding injuries and damage cost estimates, were frequently a problem. Storm Data rely heavily on newspaper accounts of weather events. This works well in documenting relatively easily defined events such as thunderstorm winds or hail damage, but frequently will not provide the information needed on post-storm clear up costs or on deaths that are a result of the clean up….”

[9] Notes: “The majority of the deaths associated with the Superstorm occurred during post-storm cleanup activities.”

[10] “There were at least 14 deaths associated with the exposure or stress due from the storm.”

[11] AP (Ric Leyva). “East Coast struggles to get to work today.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. 3-15-1993, p. 1.

[12] AP (Ric Leyva). “East Coast struggles to get to work today.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. 3-15-1993, p. 1.

[13] Associated Press (Brent Laymon). “Monster Storm.” The Progress, Clearfield, PA. 3-13-1993, p. 7.

[14] Bixby, Lyn. “Blizzard of March 1993.” Hartford Courant, CT, 11-21-2001. Victim identified as Joseph Ulman.

[15] Guinness, Meredith, Thomson News Service. “Storm of `88 – 1888, that is – still considered worse.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, MD, 3-21-1993, p. 14A. To be clear, the reason this was noted as a storm-related death is because the woman died while the ambulance crew “struggled through a mile of chest-high snow to reach her.” The implication being she might have lived had they reached her in time.

[16] Bixby, Lyn. “Blizzard of March 1993.” The Hartford Courant, CT, 11-21-2001.

[17] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 16.

[18] 28 direct deaths are noted on page 1-2. However pp. 1-3 through 1-6 detail the direct deaths, and when all these are tallied, the total comes to 29 direct deaths, not the 28 noted on page 1-2. When this total of 29 direct deaths is added to the 11 drowning deaths noted in the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico, and the 11 post-storm rescue and cleanup deaths, the total comes to 51, which is the number this document notes as the FL tally.

[19] NWS Natural Disaster Survey Report, at page 2-10, notes “Eleven people were drowned by the surge between 4:20 a.m. and 6:30 a.m., March 13, with ten of these fatalities in Taylor County.” Noted on next page that “To our knowledge, no winter storm has ever produced a deadly storm surge of such magnitude in the Gulf of Mexico. In fact, Superstorm surge killed more people from drowning than Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew combined.”

[20] Victim identified as Danielle Howanitz. Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[21] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report. Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-2.

[22] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[23] Reference to the Fantastico which sank 70 miles off Ft. Myers, FL during the storm. A U.S. Coast Guard helicopter rescued three of its crew but “was forced back to base due to low fuel levels” before the remaining seven could be saved. (IT1me.com. 1993 Storm of the Century, citing John Galvin. “Superstorm: Eastern and Central U.S., March 1993. Popular Mechanics, 12-17-2009.) The ship was carrying a load of fertilizer from Miami to Tampa. (Divespots.com. “Fantastico.” Accessed 3-29-2016.) See, also, Leereefs.org. “Major Shipwrecks.”

[24] UPI. “Coast Guard rescues 235 people from storm.” 3-15-1993. Notes that the Coast Guard “found one body, but said it believed there was another person aboard.”

[25] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[26] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since the NWS does not have note a category for “storm-related fire” deaths, we assume this is the appropriate place.

[27] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since this “wind-related” death is not noted in “high wind” section and is a traffic fatality, frequently viewed as the NWS and the NCDC as an indirect death, we can only assume this seemingly catch-all category is the appropriate placement.

[28] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since this “wind-related” death is not noted in “high wind” section and is a traffic fatality, frequently viewed as the NWS and the NCDC as an indirect death, we can only assume this seemingly catch-all category is the appropriate placement.

[29] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[30] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Victim identified as John E. Middleton. Article notes he was from Oxford; locality of death might be different.

[31] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Again, we have to guess that these deaths should be placed in this category, in that no other category seems more appropriate.

[32] Reference to the Fantastico which sank 70 miles off Ft. Myers, FL during the storm. A U.S. Coast Guard helicopter recued three of its crew but “was forced back to base due to low fuel levels” before the remaining seven could be saved. (IT1me.com. 1993 Storm of the Century, citing John Galvin. “Superstorm: Eastern and Central U.S., March 1993. Popular Mechanics, 12-17-2009.)

[33] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, pp. 25-26. Notes “Two males, one a Canadian…were apparently washed overboard from a fishing boat and drowned. Their bodies were recovered a week later.”

[34] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, pp. 27-28. Under heading of “High Winds” notes: “A 38-foot fishing vessel was swamped by 20-30 foot seas seven miles west of the coast. One crewman drowned…”

[35] UPI. “Coast Guard rescues 235 people from storm.” 3-15-1993. Notes that the Coast Guard “found one body, but said it believed there was another person aboard.”

[36] Notes that the total of 47 fatalities included 14 from storm surge and flooding. In that a separate location on the NCDC Storm Events Database on “Storm Surge” notes 10 deaths – 9 at Dekle Beach and 1 at Keaton Beach, we assume that there were four flood deaths.

[37] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 27: “Flood waters about nine feet deep inundated the coastal area with most residents in water chest deep. One person suffered a heart attack and died attempting to evacuate out of the flooded area. Sixty-one homes were destroyed, 3,300 damaged, and 100 people evacuated.”

[38] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, 35/3, March 1993, p. 27. The flooding that took place is noted under the title of “Storm Surge” and the time of as 05:45 EST. In that the NCDC Storm Events Database notes ten other deaths as the storm surge death total, and has them in Taylor County, we assume this was one of the four “Flood” deaths noted.

[39] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 27. An AP article identifies the victim as Orly Grossback. (AP, Chiefland, FL. “Winter storm kills at least 13 across the state.” Key West Citizen, 3-14-1993, 3A.)

[40] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 29.

[41] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 29. Under the heading “High Winds” it is noted that the collapsing wall killed a motorcyclist who was standing nearby.

[42] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 25. Under the heading of “High Winds” notes they “were drowned when they apparently were pushed [notes winds up to 61 mph] into the bridge pilings and capsized.”

[43] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[44] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since the NCDC does not have note a category for “storm-related fire” deaths, we assume this is the appropriate place.

[45] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since this “wind-related” death is not noted in “high wind” section and is a traffic fatality, frequently viewed as the NWS and the NCDC as an indirect death, we can only assume this seemingly catch-all category is the appropriate placement.

[46] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since this “wind-related” death is not noted in “high wind” section and is a traffic fatality, frequently viewed as the NWS and the NCDC as an indirect death, we can only assume this seemingly catch-all category is the appropriate placement.

[47] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[48] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Victim identified as John E. Middleton. Article notes he was from Oxford; locality of death might be different.

[49] NCDC Storm Data, 35/7, March 1993, p. 26, writes “A 10- to 12-foot storm surge moved into the coast destroying 57 residences. Ten people were killed…”

[50] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornadoes, Tstm Wind, Hail, Flooding, Storm Surge. FL, March 12-13.

[51] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Alachua County, LaCrosse, 3-13-1993, 20:00, F1. Identification of victim as 6-year-old girl from: AP. “Storm already responsible for five deaths in South,” 3-13-1993.

[52] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Thunderstorm Wind, FL, Miami-Dade Co., Narrowrowanja, 13^th, 04:52. An AP article has the place of death as Homestead. We note that a look at a Google map shows a Naranja, FL just to the north of Homestead. According to the article, “Danielle Howanitz, 36, died in a mobile home brought in by the federal government to replace one demolished by the hurricane. The home…tipped over in a strong gust.” Associated Press, Chiefland, FL. “Winter storm kills at least 13 across the state.” Key West Citizen, 3-14-1993, 3A.

[53] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Lake County, Mt. Dora, 3-13-1993, 00:30 EST, F2.

[54] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Levy County, March 12, 1993, 23:38 EST.

[55] Assoc. Press, Chiefland, FL. “Winter storm kills at least 13 across the state.” Key West Citizen, 3-14-1993, 3A. The victims were identified as Willie Mae Strong and her daughter. Capri. (Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.)

[56] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Tornado, Florida, Levy County, March 12, 1993, 23:38 EST. AP article identifies the victim as Sylvester Garrison, who lived two houses away from the destroyed home noted above. (Assoc. Press, Chiefland, FL. “Winter storm kills at least 13 across the state.” Key West Citizen, 3-14-1993, 3A.)

[57] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Events Database. Thunderstorm Wind, FL, Manatee Co., Terra Ceia Bay, Mar 13, 1993.

[58] Cited Coast Guard for information that some wreckage had been found March 15, but little hope held out. Called off search on the 16^th. Another source notes the that “two men on the fishing boat Twister activated an emergency locator Beacon Saturday, then disappeared.” Notes search was conducted around Crystal River (Citrus County). (UPI. “Six dead, 11 missing in waters off Florida.” 3-16-1993.)

[59] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[60] Perhaps a reference to the fishing boat Twister, which was lost about 10 miles west of Crystal River, Citrus County, in the Gulf. (UPI [United Press International]. “Coast Guard rescues 235 people from storm.” 3-15-1993.)

[61] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[62] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[63] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[64] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[65] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[66] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[67] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Victim identified as John E. Middleton. Article notes he was from Oxford; locality of death might be different.

[68] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[69] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[70] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[71] This might be a reference to Verlie Eugene Lewis, 47, Cocoa Beach (Brevard County on FL east coast) a commercial fisherman, who drowned when his boat, the June Bug, sank 70 miles west of Tarpon Springs, Pinellas County. (Assoc. Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.)

[72] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[73] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[74] Associated Press, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B.

[75] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 33.

[76] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 33.

[77] Galvin, John. “Superstorm: Eastern and Central U.S., March 1993. Popular Mechanics, 12-17-2009. Walker County is in northwest Georgia. Article notes that seven were rescued after being spotted by a GA State Police helicopter. The member who had tried hiking out for help died.

[78] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 34.

[79] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 34.

[80] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-11. Written that “Eight of the deaths were directly attributable to the storm from either fallen trees or exposure to the elements while the remaining six deaths were indirectly caused by the storm.”

[81] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[82] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[83] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[84] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 47.

[85] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-12.

[86] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-12.

[87] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 49. Highlighted in yellow to denote that this death was not during the March 12-13 winter storm, but in the storm’s freezing temperature aftermath.

[88] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-15.

[89] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 55.

[90] Shuey, P.J. “Area digs out after the big one.” The Capital, Annapolis, MD, 3-15-1993, p. 1. Victim identified as Santiago Osorio Guzman. Notes “snow-related accident” was just west of Davidsonville Road. Cites State Police.

[91] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[92] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-14.

[93] NYT. “The Blizzard of ’93: The Overview; Storm Paralyzes East Coast…” 3-14, 1993. Cites Albany Co. Sheriff.

[94] NYT (Robert D. McFadden). “The Blizzard of ’93: The Overview; Storm Paralyzes East Coast…” 3-14, 1993.

[95] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 75. Notes that the victim was “trying to remove snow from around his car on the highway below when the avalanche hit.” News article provides age of victim, who was identified as John Hynes of Cornwall-on-Hudson, and that the location was near West Point. (Associated Press (Yvette H. Blackman). “10 killed in New York state.” Post-Star, Glen Falls, NY, 3-15-1993, A3.)

[96] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 75.

[97] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 75. Notes that the victim “was forced to walk in the street as sidewalks were impassable due to the snow.”

[98] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 73.

[99] AP (Yvette H. Blackman). “10 killed in New York state.” Post-Star, Glen Falls, NY, 3-15-1993, A3. Cause of death not clear. Article notes “Police said she was outside her car when she collapsed on Saturday.”

[100] Assoc. Press (Y. H. Blackman). “10 killed in New York state.” Post-Star, Glen Falls, NY, 3-15-1993, A3. We assume these were Kingston, Ulster County, men in that they were reported to have died in the Kingston Hospital.

[101] NYT. “The Blizzard of ’93: The Overview; Storm Paralyzes East Coast…” 3-14, 1993. Cites Albany Co. Sheriff.

[102] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 75.

[103] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 75.

[104] AP, Rochester, NY. “Heart attacks biggest storm danger.” Post-Star, Glens Falls NY, 3-16-`93, A2. Article notes “At least half of the 20 New York deaths blamed on the storm were people who died of heart attacks while shoveling…” In that we note the locations of four, we take it to be the case that there were at least six others.

[105] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77.

[106] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77. NCDC had date time-frame as March 12-14. The 13^th is from: NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-7.

[107] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77.

[108] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77. NCDC had date time-frame as March 12-14. The 13^th is from: NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-7.

[109] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77.

[110] NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77. Not clear, but traffic fatalities would be best guess.

[111] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[112] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 77.

[113] Smothers. “The Blizzard of ’93: The South; Regions Used to the Sun Took…Severest Blows.” NYT, 3-15-1993.

[114] NWS. Natural Disaster Survey Report Superstorm of March 1993, March 12-14, 1993. 1994, p. 1-13.

[115] “As many as 48 others [reference to 4 direct deaths] died in the post-storm clean-up, primarily from heart attacks while shoveling snow.”

[116] Notes “Most were blamed on exhaustion or heart attacks from shoveling snow.” Another article cites state officials for the figure of 50 storm-related fatalities. (AP (Robinson). “Pennsylvania may get $45 million in storm relief.: The Progress, Clearfield, PA, 3-18-1993, 1.)

[117] The “0” means no fatalities are noted.

[118] Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. “County suffers along with entire eastern coast.” 3-14-1993, p. A-6.

[119] Associated Press, Pittsburgh. “Unlit gas oven causes death.” New Castle News, PA, 3-16-1993, p. 2. Victim identified as Ethel McGill. Article notes that “the pilot light in the oven went out, but the gas continued to flow.”

[120] The News, Frederick, MD. “Death Toll” (continued from A-1). 3-15-1993, p. A-8.

[121] AP (Robinson). “Pennsylvania may get $45 million in storm relief.: The Progress, Clearfield, PA, 3-18-1993, 1. Victim identified as Patrick Molloy.

[122] Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. “County suffers along with entire eastern coast.” 3-14-1993, p. A-6.

[123] Franklin. “A Tale of snow and wind; rescues, heroes and babies.” Evening Sun, Hanover, PA, 3-21-1993, p. A-5.

[124] Christopher Buckley and Karen Peters. “Mid-Mon Valley area is digging out today.” Monessen Valley Independent, PA, 3-17-1993, 2. Victim identified as Michael Durki.

[125] Newspaper article notes: “In Spartanburg, S.C., a man who apparently fell asleep outside a nightclub…froze do death.” Smothers. “The Blizzard of ’93: The South; Regions Used to the Sun Took…Blows.” NYT, 3-15-1993.

[126] Though it is written that “There were 15 deaths that were directly or indirectly related to the winter storm” the details which follow tally to thirteen.

[127] The NCDC notes one CO death. A newspaper notes “man found in car, believed dead of carbon monoxide poisoning.” Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[128] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 115-116. “It was believed that she suffered a heart attack or stroke while in her back yard and was unable to get inside out of the cold.”

[129] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 115.

[130] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 115.

[131] Writes “They had to make their way through snow drifts that were at times chin deep.”

[132] Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV. “Deaths in the East Coast blizzard.” 3-14-1993, A3.

[133] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 118.

[134] Associated Press. “Two more deaths confirmed in state.” Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV, 3-18-1993, A6. Specific cause of death not noted. Might have been heart attack due to exertion walking through deep snow, or exposure if he was knocked unconscious when he fell, for example. Victim identified as Willard W. Elder. Cites County Sheriff on “ruling” that the death “was storm related.”

[135] NCDC, NOAA. Storm Data, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1993, p. 118. Newspaper article identifies victim of Willis Altizer, 55. (Assoc. Press. “Two more deaths confirmed in state.” Bluefield Daily Telegraph, WV, 3-18-1993, A6.

[136] Cites West Virginia authorities from statement the day before, March 17.

[137] In Cuba, total fatalities were relatively low (10), but economic losses amounted to more than U.S. $1 billion.”

[138] “To the south [of FL], the squall line was the most damaging one ever recorded in Cuba, causing 10 casualties [fatalities] and over $1 billion in economic losses (Alfonso and Naranjo, 1996).” [A.P. Alfonso and L. R. Naranjo. “The 13 March 1993 Severe Squall Line over Western Cuba.” Weather and Forecasting 11, 1996, pp. 89-102.]

[139] Galvin, John. “Superstorm: Eastern and Central U.S., March 1993. Popular Mechanics, 12-17-2009. Notes that the entire crew was lost after “heading straight into the storm. The captain reported that 90-mph winds and 100-ft. waves were battering the ship…” before it sank as the crew of a Canadian military turboprop watched. Crew consisted of twenty-nine people from Hong Kong, three from China and one from Taiwan.

[140] As the description notes there is ambiguity as to cause of death.

[141] It is our assumption the death was outdoors, given that a news article wrote “Officials believe she was trying to seek shelter” on a night where temperatures reached a low of 21 degrees F. (Ocala Star-Banner, FL. “Storm hits Big Sun with awesome power, fury.” 3-21-1993, p. 7.)

[142] It is our speculation that this was a death due to exposure. The newspaper source notes that she was found buried in snow in front of her home and that according to police she had collapsed outside her car.

[143] Specific cause of death not noted. Might have been heart attack due to exertion walking through deep snow, or exposure if he was knocked unconscious when he fell, for example.

[144] It is our speculation that this was a death due to exposure – cause of death not made clear.

[145] It is our speculation that this was a death due to exposure – cause of death not made clear.

[146] Presumably due to exposure – though not explicitly stated.

[147] AP, Rochester, NY. “Heart attacks biggest storm danger.” Post-Star, Glens Falls NY, 3-16-`93, A2. Article notes “At least half of the 20 New York deaths blamed on the storm were people who died of heart attacks while shoveling…” In that we note the locations of four, we take it to be the case that there were at least six others.

[148] Notes there were at least 10 such deaths, but we know of one death in Wise County which was a heart attack death noted as storm-related in that medical assistance was delayed due to snow-blocked roads.

[149] AP, Tallahassee, FL. “Storm Deaths.” Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL, 3-17-1993, p. 3B. Since this “wind-related” death is not noted in “high wind” section and is a traffic fatality, frequently viewed as the NWS and the NCDC as an indirect death, we can only assume this seemingly catch-all category is the appropriate placement.

[150] Highlighted in yellow in order to point out that some might believe this should be under “Vehicular” category.

[151] Probable reference to fishing boat Twister which was lost about 10 miles west of Crystal River, Citrus County.

[152] A different NOAA source (in tornado discussion) refers to the strong wind as a downburst.

[153] The Fantastico, on way from Miami to Tampa. Have not seen a nationality description of the crew.

[154] This is from the NWS Natural Disaster Survey report. The NCDC also notes a Terra Ceia Bay death on March 13, under the description of strong winds, specifically noting in this instance a man attempting to evacuate his houseboat in strong winds. We speculate these reference the same death.

[155] This might be a slip or fall leading to an exposure death, or a heart attack. Not clear.

20th Century

1993 — Feb 28, Shootout, Large ATF force attempts to serve David Koresh, Waco, TX[1]– 10

lornajarrettblanchard February 28, 1993

–10 CBS News. “What Really Happened at Waco: Six Years Latter Controversy….” 1-25-2000.

–10 NYT Learning Network. “Feb. 28, 1993. Federal Agents Rain Religious Sect…” 2-28-2012.

–10 Smith. “Scholars tackle ‘cult’ questions 20 years after…tragedy.” Wacotrib.com, 4-13-2013

Narrative Information

CBS News: “….It all started nearly seven years ago with a February 1993 raid by more than 70 agents from the Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms. David Koresh and his followers, the Branch Davidians, were known to have a large cache of high-powered weapons. The ATF also suspected that the group had explosives and the parts to manufacture machine guns illegally. When it arrived to search the compound, shooting started almost immediately. Afterward, four ATF agents and six Branch Davidians were dead. The Federal Bureau of Investigation moved in, and a lengthy standoff ensued. For more than seven frustrating weeks, the FBI tried to persuade the Davidians to come out….” (CBS News. “What Really Happened at Waco: Six Years Latter Controversy….” 1-25-2000.)

NYT Learning Network: “On Feb. 28, 1993, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms agents raided the compound of the Branch Davidian religious sect in Waco, Tex., to arrest its leaders, including the self-proclaimed Messiah, David Koresh, on weapons charges. The Davidians resisted, and a gun battle erupted that left four agents and six Davidians dead.

“The New York Times noted that the raid came just a day after The Waco Tribune-Herald published an exposé on the sect that “called attention to the weapons and discussed accusations by former members that Mr. Koresh sexually abused girls in the compound” and an editorial that ‘criticized what it called a lack of government action against the group.’

“The raid was hastily planned and had several serious flaws. Koresh was tipped to the raid hours before it occurred; he told an undercover agent living with the sect that he knew, yet the bureau still decided to proceed with the raid. The Times quoted the bureau official Ted Royster: ‘They knew we were coming. I cannot tell you what went wrong. It appeared as though they were waiting for us.’….” (NYT Learning Network. “Feb. 28, 1993. Federal Agents Rain Religious Sect…” 2-28-2012.) [See April 19, 1993 for entry on raid that ended ensuing siege that led to deaths of more than 75 people.]

PBS: “At about 9:30 a.m. agents of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms attempt to execute arrest and search warrants against David KORESH and the Branch Davidian compound. Gunfire erupts. Four ATF agents are killed and 16 are wounded. An undetermined number of Davidians are killed and injured. Within a few hours, the FBI becomes the lead agency for resolving the standoff….

“Michael SCHROEDER, a Branch Davidian, is killed while he tries to return to the main building….” (PBS. Frontline. Waco: The Inside Story. “Chronology of the Siege.” 1995.)

Sources

CBS News. “What Really Happened at Waco: Six Years Latter Controversy Continues.” 1-25-2000. Accessed 4-3-2016 at: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-really-happened-at-waco/

PBS. Frontline. Waco: The Inside Story. “Chronology of the Siege.” 1995. Accessed 4-3-2016 at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/waco/timeline.html

[1] See April 19, 1993 for FBI/ATF attack, wherein 75 Davidians (including 25 children) died.

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