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— 14  Henry. FIR: Delta Flight 1141 Crash, Dallas/Fort Worth Airport, August 31, 1988. P. 1.

— 14  NTSB. 08/31/88 Delta: Official Accident Report Index Page. 9-26-1989.

 

Narrative Information

 

Henry/NFPA: “At approximately 9:00 a.m. on Wednesday, August 31, 1988, a Boeing 727 in service for Delta Air Lines crashed during takeoff at the Dallas/Fort Worth Airport. The plane experienced a low impact crash off the end of the runway and traveled 3300 feet along the ground beyond the end of the runway. It left a trail of burning fuel and grass, and the fuselage opened in some locations. Of the 108 persons onboard, 94 survived…. [Abstract, p. 1.]

 

NTSB: “This report examines the crash of Delta flight 1141 while taking off at the Dallas-Forth Worth, Texas on August 31, 1988. The safety issues discussed in the report include flightcrew procedures; wake vortices; engine performance; airplane flaps and slats; takeoff warning system; cockpit discipline; aircraft rescue and firefighting; emergency evacuation; and survival factors. Recommendations addressing these issues were made to the Federal Aviation Administration, the American Association of Airport Executives, the Airport Operations Council International, and the National Fire Protection Association….   [Abstract, p. 2 of 129.]

 

“Probable cause: (1) The Captain and First Officer’s inadequate cockpit discipline which resulted in the flightcrew’s attempt to take off without the wing flaps and slats properly configured; and (2) the failure of the takeoff configuration warning system to alert the crew that the airplane was not properly configured for the takeoff.

 

“Contributing causes: “Delta’s slow implementation of necessary modifications to its operating procedures, manual, checklists, training, and crew checking programs which was necessitated by

significant changes in the airline following rapid growth and merger; the lack of sufficiently aggressive action by the FAA to have known deficiencies corrected by Delta and the lack of sufficient accountability within the FAA’s air carrier inspection process.” (p. 4 of 129.)

 

“Description: “After a normal takeoff roll, the captain heard two explosions as the main gear wheels left the ground. The airplane began to “roll violently,” struck the instrument landing system localizer antenna array and came to rest about 3,200 feet beyond the runway. The airplane was destroyed by impact forces and postcrash fire. Fourteen were killed, 94 survived.” (p. 4 of 129.)

 

“Executive Summary: “About 0901 central daylight time on August 31, 1988, Delta Air Lines, Inc., flight 1141, crashed shortly after lifting off from runway 18L at the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, Texas. The airplane, a Boeing 727-232, U.S. Registry N473DA, was a regularly scheduled passenger flight and was en route to Salt Lake City, Utah, with 101 passengers and 7 crewmembers.

 

“The flightcrew reported that the takeoff roll appeared to be normal in all respects, with no warning lights, audible warnings, or unusual engine instrument conditions. The captain stated that the rotation was initially normal, but as the main gear wheels left the ground he heard “two explosions.” He said it felt as though the airplane was experiencing “reverse thrust.” The captain stated that the airplane began to “roll violently.”

 

“The airplane struck the instrument landing system (ILS) localizer antenna array approximately 1,000 feet beyond the end of runway 18L, and came to rest about 3,200 feet beyond the departure end of the runway. The flight was airborne approximately 22 seconds from liftoff to the first ground impact near the ILS localizer antenna. The airplane was destroyed by impact forces and the postcrash fire.

 

“Of the persons on board flight 1141 12 passengers and 2 crewmembers were killed, 21 passengers and 5 crewmembers were seriously injured, and 68 passengers sustained minor or no injuries….” (p. 5 of 129)

 

“History of the Flight: On August 31, 1988, Delta Air Lines, Inc., flight 1141, a Boeing 727-232, N473DA, was a regularly scheduled passenger flight from Jackson, Mississippi to Salt Lake City, Utah, with an intermediate stop at the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport (DFW), Texas. The flight was conducted subject to the provisions of Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 121….” (p. 7 of 129).

 

Injuries to Persons: Cabin crew (2); Passengers (12);[1] Total (14). [p. 9 of 129.]

 

“Medical and Pathological Information. The cause of death of the 11 passengers and the two flight attendants was determined to be smoke inhalation. Levels of carboxyhemoglobin (COH6) ranged from 15 to 81 percent. Tests for drugs and ethanol were negative in all 13 persons. A 14th fatality was a passenger who had successfully evacuated but later attempted to reenter the burning airplane. This passenger died of severe burns, 11 days after the accident….” (p. 37 of 129.)

 

“Fire. A fire ensued after the right wing contacted the ground and quickly spread to engulf the rear, right side of the airplane after it came to rest. The fire subsequently penetrated the fuselage.” (p. 38 of 129.)

 

“Survival Aspects…. The investigation found that although the fuselage had separated in several places, the occupiable volume of the cabin was not substantially compromised. Passengers generally stated that impact forces were not severe. Further, the cause of deaths of the passengers in the aft section of the cabin were attributed to smoke inhalation and fire rather than impact injuries. Exit from the aft cabin was hampered by the fire that impinged on the right side of the airplane. Exit from the mid and forward cabin was through breaks in the fuselage and through the left side exits, except for the left aft service door which was not opened.” (p. 39 of 129.)

 

“Analysis…. The investigation determined that the flightcrew was qualified in accordance with applicable Federal Aviation regulations and company regulations.

 

“The airplane had been maintained and operated in accordance with applicable Federal Aviation regulations and company operations specifications. There was no evidence of any preexisting discrepancies or of any preimpact structural, flight control, or engine failures which would have been causal to the accident.

 

“Although the No. 1 fuel gauge was inoperative and the fuel tanks were not drip-sticked following refueling, the evidence indicates that the airplane was refueled properly. There was no evidence that there was a fuel imbalance that would have caused flight control problems.

 

“There were no abnormal airplane movements prior to takeoff, changes in ground control frequencies, or weather-related factors which could have distracted the flightcrew from its duties.

 

“The analysis of this accident addressed the performance of the airplane’s trailing edge flap and leading edge flap and slat control systems, as well as the performance of the airplane’s takeoff warning system and the performance of the engines. Also addressed in this analysis was the FAA’s surveillance of Delta and Delta’s efforts to correct or improve problem areas identified during FAA inspections.” (p. 67 of 129.)

 

“Flightcrew Actions After Takeoff. Even though the analysis determined that the flightcrew did not configure the airplane properly for takeoff, the accident may not have been inevitable. Thus, the flightcrew’s actions after takeoff were analyzed to determine whether the accident could have been prevented or otherwise minimized….

 

“During the public hearing, the second officer testified that, after the aircraft rolled to the right, he observed that both of the captain’s hands were on the control yoke. Therefore, it is concluded that the captain’s call of “full power” was a command for the first officer to advance the throttles, and that power had not been increased prior to 0900:34.7. Despite the captain’s statement at the public hearing that he applied maximum power before impact, there is no evidence that power was ever actually increased above the reduced takeoff rating.

 

“The captain testified that Delta’s procedures when encountering stickshaker after liftoff were to apply maximum available thrust, rotate toward 15° of pitch, and to respect all stall warnings, i.e., stickshaker or buffeting. Additionally, the captain testified that he followed Delta’s procedures after encountering stickshaker. The performance study found that the airplane was rotated over 13° when it passed the ILS antenna and may have exceeded 15° at various portions of the flight. In any event, the nose of the airplane was not lowered to silence the stickshaker.

 

“The investigation found that Delta’s procedures for encountering a stickshaker or buffeting close to the ground are, in part, to apply maximum power and to rotate toward 15° of noseup pitch attitude. Additionally, the Delta procedure states that the pilot is to stop rotation if stickshaker or buffeting is encountered. It is concluded that not applying maximum thrust after the onset of stickshaker and not respecting stickshaker warnings were the significant reasons for the captain’s inability to gain control of the airplane after liftoff.

 

“The investigation found that the most appropriate reaction after activation of the stickshaker was to apply maximum available thrust and to lower the nose below stickshaker AOA. Although a clean wing is not an authorized takeoff configuration for the B-727, the airplane performance analysis showed that a marginal climb capability was available if stickshaker AOA had not been exceeded and/or if maximum power had been applied within 3 seconds of initial stickshaker activation. Maximum throttle position increases thrust approximately 25 percent from about 34,500 to 43,000 pounds total thrust. Therefore, had maximum power been applied 3 seconds after stickshaker, performance calculations predict that the airplane would have gained 20 knots of airspeed and over 200 feet of altitude before reaching the ILS antenna. If stickshaker AOA had not been exceeded, further altitude gain could have been expected. Moreover, a check of configuration–the flap control lever and flap indications–immediately upon activation of the stickshaker would have disclosed the reason for the airplane’s performance deficiency. Had the first officer or second officer moved the flap control immediately, the extension of the leading edge devices would have provided sufficient stall margin to regain control.” (p. 78 of 129.)

 

“FAA Surveillance. The investigation of this accident found that the FAA had conducted four inspections of Delta since 1985. With the exception of the 1986 NASIP inspection, there were consistent observations of deficiencies in Delta’s training, checking, and line operations that were evident from 1985 to as recently as October 1988. These deficiencies included poor flightcrew discipline and coordination, including improper use of checklists, and abuses in Delta’s training and checking programs.

 

“The Safety Board gathered considerable testimony at the public hearing concerning the oversight of Delta by the FAA. The relationship between an air carrier and the FAA is unique and complex. Deregulation of the industry in 1978, combined with the growth in air travel, has made the FAA’s job of overseeing the airlines more difficult than it use to be. Nevertheless, the FAA was aware of certain deficiencies in Delta’s check airman program as far back as 1985. Additionally, in 1987, the incidents involving Delta flightcrews and the findings of the 1987 inspection team should have indicated to Delta and the FAA that immediate corrective action was necessary.

 

“The results of the 1987 and 1988 special inspections of Delta indicated that a potential for a mishap existed if remedial action was not taken. Many of the observations made by the inspection teams were evident in the cockpit of flight 1141–that is, poor discipline, poor crew coordination, and a lack of knowledge concerning individual responsibility. While the air carrier has the primary responsibility to operate in a safe manner, the deficiencies noted by the FAA special inspection teams warranted corrective action by Delta and aggressive followup by the FAA. The FAA personnel questioned on this point at the public hearing responded by stating that the deficiencies noted by the special inspection teams at Delta were “non-regulatory” in nature, and therefore beyond the principal inspector’s direct control. While this may be true from a technical viewpoint, the purpose of the special inspection teams sent to Delta was to look beyond

minimum compliance and to identify operational areas that needed improvement….” (p. 83 of 129.)

 

“Fire Propagation. Examination of the physical evidence indicated that the external fire was initiated when the right wing and tail struck the localizer antenna array. The fire intensified when the airplane struck the lip of the depression in the terrain. The right wing was destroyed and the fuel tanks lost all structural integrity. Flames not only impinged on the right side of the fuselage, but extended around the fuselage, heating the inboard wing area on the left side. As the fuselage slid, the aft cargo door opened and was pushed in. The forward door of the aft cargo compartment opened outward, and was torn off at its hinges. The hinges ripped the fuselage open causing a large opening in that area.

 

“Evidence showed that the fire entered the aft cargo compartment before the airplane came to rest. After the airplane stopped, the fire burned through the cargo compartment liners and cabin floor. The fire also entered the cabin through the aft break in the fuselage, the opened right-hand overwing exit, and later through a burn through in the center wing box area. The fire entering the fuselage through the aft break trapped passengers in the aft end of the cabin. The fire burning through the floor probably caused the fatalities in that area. The autopsy reports showed the cause of death to all fatalities as smoke inhalation.

 

“The forward cabin remained survivable for about 4 minutes and 20 seconds, despite the large fuel fire at the ruptured area. Some of this survival time can be attributed to the use of fire blocking materials on the seat cushions….” (p. 90 of 129.)

 

“Conclusions….

 

“3. The flightcrew deviated from Delta’s policies and procedures with respect to checklist execution, cockpit discipline, and required callouts.

 

“4. Extensive non-duty related conversations and the lengthy presence of the flight attendant in the cockpit reduced the flightcrew’s vigilance in ensuring that the aircraft was properly prepared for flight….

 

“8. The flightcrew did not extend the airplane’s flaps or slats for takeoff.

 

“9. The takeoff warning system had an intermittent failure problem which was not corrected during the last maintenance activity and which manifested itself during the takeoff of flight 1141.

 

“10. Failure of the takeoff warning system to activate was most likely due to contamination or misalignment of the takeoff warning system throttle switch.

 

“11. Failure of the auto pack trip light to illuminate as the throttles were advanced should have

been reported as a malfunction to the captain by the second officer.

 

“12. The captain’s action of continuing to increase AOA after the onset of stickshaker and his

failure to apply maximum power in accordance with Delta’s procedures reduced the climb and

acceleration performance of the airplane.

 

“13. Delta Air Lines’ corporate philosophy of permitting maximum captain discretion contributed to the poor discipline and performance of flight 1141’s flightcrew.

 

“14. The FAA was aware of the flightcrew performance deficiencies in Delta’s operations, as well as irregularities in Delta’s training and checking programs.

 

“15. Neither Delta nor the FAA took sufficient corrective actions to eliminate known flightcrew

performance deficiencies….

 

“20. A number of lives were saved by the use of the fire blocking layer on the passenger seats. An exact number of additional survivors could not be determined….” (p. 98 of 129.)

 

Sources

 

Henry, Martin F. Fire Investigation Report: Delta Flight 1141 Crash, Dallas/Fort Worth Airport, August 31, 1988. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, no date.

 

National Transportation Safety Board. 08/31/88 Delta: Official Accident Report Index Page (NTSB/AAR-89/04) – Delta Air Lines, Inc. Boeing 727-232, N473DA, Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, Texas, August 31, 1988. Washington, DC: NTSB, 9-26-1989, 129 pages. Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/maintenance_hf/library/documents/media/human_factors_maintenance/delta_air_lines.inc._boeing_727-232.n473da.dallas-fort_worth_international_airport.texas_august_31.1988.pdf

 

 

 

[1] Notes in footnote: “One passenger successfully exited the aircraft, but was severely burned when he attempted to reenter the cabin. Hew died 11 days later. It is believed that he attempted to reenter the cabin in an effort to provide assistance to his wife and other passengers in escaping from the aircraft.”

–7  Dresbeck. Oregon: True Stories of Tragedy…Survival. Chap. 15, “Burning Fields…” p. 149.

–7  The Oregonian, Portland. “Smoky 21-vehicle pileup kills 7 on I-5.” 8-4-1988 and 2-19-2015.

–7  The Oregonian, Portland (Rick Attig). “Still field burning after all these years.” 6-9-2009.

 

Narrative Information

 

Aug 4, 1988, Oregonian: “A fiery 21-vehicle pileup Wednesday on Interstate 5 caused by thick smoke from a burning field killed at least seven people, two of them babies, and injured 37, at least two seriously, Oregon State Police said.

 

“The 3:50 p.m. accident closed the two northbound lanes of the freeway 7½ miles south of Albany for more than four hours. More than 10 vehicles caught fire, including a tractor-trailer rig carrying wood chips that was one of four trucks involved.

 

“Witnesses likened the highway scene to a war zone, with blackened, crumpled vehicles, burned trucks and charred grass stretching for about a half-mile. Wood chips in a burned truck smoldered for hours after the crash, and the smell of smoke hung heavy in the air….

 

“Kevin Sterba, driver of the chip truck, said everything happened so fast it was hard to determine the chain of events. The 22-year-old Philomath man said the smoke had lowered visibility, so he was driving slowly with his lights turned on. Suddenly, he said, there was ‘just a big, heavy cloud of smoke. It was just pitch black.’ He braked and bailed out of his 45-foot rig. ‘It was in flames when I got out,” he said. ”As far as I could see there were flames in front of me.’

 

“Two baby girls and an 8-year-old California boy were listed among the dead, said State Police Trooper Jeff Howard. Two women and a couple who were thought to be the parents of the infants also were killed. Howard said the boy died after he was thrown from a vehicle and was struck by another vehicle.[1] One of the women died of accident injuries and one was burned. The couple and babies were all in one van and were burned beyond recognition,[2] Howard said…. All were dead at the scene, police said.

 

“Accidents also occurred in the southbound lanes, but at least one southbound lane remained open, troopers said….

 

“Bobrowitz [State Police spokesman] said smoke from field burning on the west side of the interstate caused the chain-reaction accident. Grass-seed farmers in the Willamette Valley burn their fields after the summer harvest to limit diseases and insects.

 

“Paul Stutzman, of 34224 Seven Mile Lane, Albany, who owns the field where the fire was burning, said he was burning 82 acres of grass fields when the wind apparently shifted, spreading smoke across the freeway. Brian Finneran, field burning manager for the state Department of Environmental Quality, said ‘this was an authorized fire’ and the agency had given Stutzman permission about 3 p.m. to begin burning his field. The field Stutzman had been permitted to burn isn’t adjacent to the freeway, but the fire accidentally spread to one that is, he said. A whirlwind, relatively common in field fires, could have carried embers from one field to the other, Finneran said.

 

“A crash survivor, a dairy truck driver who declined to give his name, said he could see 100 yards ahead as he approach the scene then suddenly was plunged into darkness….

 

“The state has heavily regulated field burning in the valley since 1979…though some forms of restrictions date back to 1969….

 

“Legislators, state officials and those familiar with field burning all called the chain-reaction wreck a tragedy but said it should not call for an immediate halt to field burning.”

 

June 9, 2009, Oregonian: “Two decades after field smoke caused a horrific crash on I-5, Oregon has run out of excuses for failing to ban field burning.

 

“A trucker blinded by the black, wind-whipped smoke of a runaway field fire drove his semi over the top of a van in front of him. A young couple and their two daughters, one age 2, the other just 8 months, were trapped inside the crushed van. Autopsies showed all four burned to death.

 

“Two children riding in the back of a pickup were thrown onto the freeway in the same chain-reaction accident. Their mother rescued one child, but when she went back to save the other, an 8-year-old, she saw her son run over by another car.

 

“Another terrified mother with six children in a van handed to rescuers two of her youngest, still strapped in their car seats, as flames burned her legs and spread across the roof of the vehicle. All of her children survived.

 

“Seven people died and 37 were injured in that horrific crash on Interstate 5 near Albany on Aug. 3, 1988. All these years later, the Oregon Legislature still hasn’t answered the question: Isn’t that enough?

 

“It wasn’t enough in 1988. Even after field burning caused one of the most devastating accidents in Oregon history, even after one grieving father mailed then-Gov. Neil Goldschmidt photos he himself took of the charred bodies of his daughter and tiny granddaughters in a Linn County mortuary, lawmakers couldn’t bring themselves to ban field burning. Instead, they reduced by two-thirds the acreage farmers could burn — and prohibited fires set within a half-mile of major roads….

 

“Back then, lawmakers had their reasons. The grass-seed industry, a powerful force in a state known as “the rye-grass capital of the world,” made a plausible case that it needed more time to come up with alternatives to field burning. The dangerous health effects of breathing particulates from field smoke were only beginning to be studied.

 

“But what are the excuses now? Twenty years after the accident, only 10 percent of Oregon’s grass-seed growers burn their fields every year. All the rest take advantage of strong new markets for grass-seed straw, new chemicals to control pests and new varieties of grass that don’t require burning.

 

“Moreover, there’s now overwhelming medical research demonstrating that sending thick field smoke rolling into small Oregon foothill communities, the ‘Sacrifice Zone’ of the state’s smoke management program, is harmful to the health of the thousands of people who live there.

 

“A strong core of Oregon lawmakers has signed on to a bill to phase out Willamette Valley field burning over the next couple years. Gov. Ted Kulongoski has thrown his support behind the bill. Yet Senate Bill 528, the field burning bill, today remains parked in a legislative committee while sponsors search for more votes. The bill’s opponents have cast it as a rural vs. urban issue. It’s not — the overwhelming majority of people living with and suffering from field burning live in Oregon’s rural communities.

 

“What else are lawmakers waiting to hear?….

 

“Everything else is right there on the record, easily accessible to any Oregon legislator willing to take the time to fully understand the issue. This isn’t 1988 any longer: Again, 90 percent of Oregon’s grass-seed growers have found acceptable alternatives and will not burn their fields this summer. Every major medical organization in the state agrees that breathing field smoke is dangerous to health.

 

“And yet even though it has run out of excuses for inaction, the Legislature still is hesitating to phase out field burning. In his book, “Ever After,” the story of his family’s death and his campaign to stop field burning, Wharton[3] wrote about the “inertia of the people of Oregon, the cowardice of its elected officials, the evasions and deceits of political leaders.” Those were tough words, from a grieving and bitter father. Yet 20 years later, they still ring true.”

 

Sources

 

Dresbeck, Rachel. Oregon: True Stories of Tragedy and Survival. Chapter 15, “Burning Fields: Chain-Reaction Car Accident, 1988.” Globe Pequot Press, 2006.

 

The Oregonian, Portland (Holley Gilbert, Michael Rollins, Cheryl Martinis). “Smoky 21-vehicle pileup kills 7 on I-5.” 8-4-1988 and 2-19-2015. Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www.oregonlive.com/data/2015/02/smoky_21-vehicle_pileup_kills.html

 

The Oregonian, Portland (Rick Attig). “Still field burning after all these years.” 6-9-2009. Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/index.ssf/2009/06/still_field_burning_after_all.html

[1] According to Dresbeck, the boy was identified as Travis Trujillo.

[2] These four victims were William Rodewald, his wife Kathleen (daughter of writer William Wharton), and their two daughters, Dayiel, 2, and Mia, 8-months. (Dresbeck, who notes they were traveling from home in rural OR to a wedding in Portland.)

[3] The late novelist William Wharton, who lost his daughter and two grand-daughters. The book Ever After: A Father’s True Story, was first published in 1995. Republished in 2009 by William Morrow Paperbacks.

— 14  Brownsville Herald (Martinez). “`It was a horrific feeling’; Today is 28^th anniversary…”

— 14  Exponent Engineering and Scientific Consulting. “Store Collapse After Structural Mod…”

— 14  Los Angeles Times. “Texas – Store-Collapse Suits Bring $33 Million,” Feb 20, 1990.

 

Narrative Information

 

Feb 20, 1990, LA Times: “Relatives of 13 people killed and 32 injured in the collapse of a department store shill share a $33.1 million out-of-court settlement.  The three-floor Amigo Store collapsed during a thunderstorm on July 7, 1988.  A 14^th person was killed, but relatives did not sue.  The settlement came from the store, the city of Brownsville and several construction companies and materials suppliers.” (Los Angeles Times. “Texas – Store-Collapse Suits Bring $33 Million,” Feb 20, 1990.)

 

Exponent Engineering: “In July 1988, a three-story department store collapsed in Brownsville, Texas, during a severe thunderstorm. The accident killed 14 people and injured 47, many of whom had sought refuge from the storm under the canopy. Exponent was asked to determine the cause of the collapse.

“As part of rescue and clean-up operations, all building rubble was disposed of before any failure investigation could be conducted. To complicate matters further, as-built drawings of the building, which had been expanded from two stories to three stories sometime prior to the collapse, did not exist. Exponent engineers painstakingly sifted through tons of debris to locate all structural elements and reassemble the as-built configuration. From the patterns of deformation observed in the reassembled members, we were able to identify the collapse mechanism. Subsequently, we constructed a non-linear finite-element computer model of a crucial structural assembly, analytically replicated the failure mechanism, and used the model to study the contributions of various factors.

“The Amigo Store building was constructed without benefit of engineering. Structural steel beams and columns were stacked in “building-block” fashion without regard to structural stability. The ad hoc design was barely strong enough to carry the added weight of the third story and stored inventory. A few inches of water dumped on the roof by the intense downpour was all it took to trigger instability and the resulting catastrophic collapse.” (Exponent Engineering and Scientific Consulting. “Store Collapse After Structural Modification”)

 

Brownsville Herald, July 7, 2016 retrospective: “….The following is the list of those who died in the July 7, 1988, collapse of La Tienda Amigo in downtown Brownsville, according to Brownsville Herald archives.

 

Israel Carrera – Mexico

Leticia Carrera – Mexico

Martha Minerva Saenz Pena – Mexico

Blanca Fabiola Avalos Colunga – Mexico

Mya Mena – Brownsville

Paloma Blanca Lira – Brownsville

Maria Dolores Acosta – Brownsville

Anotonia Reyes de Acosta – Brownsville

Juan R. Perez – Brownsville

Marisela Villarreal de Rivera – Mexico

Graciela Cortinas de Lopez – Mexico

Bertha C. Muzquiz – Brownsville

Rosalio C. Ortiz – Mexico

Martha Idalia Alvarez de Munoz – Brownsville.”

 

(Brownsville Herald, TX (Laura B. Martinez). “`It was a horrific feeling’; Today is 28^th anniversary of La Tienda Amigo collapse.” 7-7-2016.)

 

Sources

 

Brownsville Herald, TX (Laura B. Martinez). “`It was a horrific feeling’; Today is 28^th anniversary of La Tienda Amigo collapse.” 7-7-2016. Accessed 9-28-2016 at: http://www.brownsvilleherald.com/news/local/article_748c1de8-0765-5894-85fd-b1b42b2b5b9a.html

 

Exponent Engineering and Scientific Consulting. “Store Collapse After Structural Modification.”  Accessed 8-8-2009 at:  http://www.exponent.com/store_collapse_after_structural_modification/

 

Los Angeles Times. “Texas – Store-Collapse Suits Bring $33 Million,” 2-20-1990. Accessed at:  http://articles.latimes.com/1990-02-20/news/mn-1005_1

 

 

–290  Barry, John and Roger Charles. “Sea of Lies.” Newsweek, 7-12-1992.

–290  Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Iran Air flight 655. Aviation Disaster…Persian Gulf (1988).”

–290  Evans, Marine LTC. “Vincennes: A Case Study.” Proceedings, U.S. Naval Institute, 1993.

–290  Fisher. “The forgotten story of Iran Air Flight 655.” Washington Post, 10-16-2013.

–290  Hammond. “The ‘Forgotten’ US Shootdown of Iranian…655.” Foreign Policy Journal, 7-3-2017.

–290  Kaplan. “America’s Flight 17…the United States blew up a passenger plane…” Slate, 7-23-2014.

–290  Sturkey. Mayday. Accident Reports… from Airline Crash Investigations. 2005, p. 260.

–290  US Navy. Formal Investigation… (Rear Admiral Fogarty Report), 7-28-1988, p. 6.[1]

 

Narrative Information

 

Sturkey: “Overview: A big Airbus A-300[2] took off from Bandar Abbas in southern Iran.[3] On course and on schedule, the airliner flew over the Strait of Hormuz, the entrance to the Persian Gulf. By chance its flight path took it directly toward a U.S. Navy warship which was engaged in a battle with Iranian gunboats. The warship crew believed the airliner was an attacking Iranian F-14 fighter,[4] and they shot it down.[5] All 290 people on board were killed.”[6]

 

U.S. DOD Investigative Report (from Admiral Crowe letter of transmittal): “The downing of civilian Iran Air Flight 655 on 3 July was a tragic and regrettable accident and, as is so often the case in a combat environment, there were a number of contributing factors. It is first important to put the events of that day in the local context.

 

“The U.S. Government committed naval forces to the convoying of American flag tankers in the spring of 1987. From the outset, the Administration [Reagan] emphasized that while our forces could achieve this mission, it would involve risks and uncertainties. This prediction was borne out by several incidents, e.g., the indiscriminate laying of Iranian mines, the Bridgeton explosion,[7] the STARK tragedy,[8] the Samuel B. Roberts striking a mine,[9] the capture of the Iran Ajar,[10] Iranian firing on U.S. helos, and the incidents of April 18 when Iranian ships and aircraft attempted to damage U.S. units. Throughout this period and especially in the wake of the above events, the Government of Iran issued inflammatory statements threatening retaliation against American personnel and interests. Reinforcing the high level of tension, both Baghdad and Teheran have continued to attack unarmed merchant ships, the former with aircraft and the latter with small boats, ships and aircraft. Iranian assaults have been largely concentrated in the southern gulf and on occasion have taken place in the presence of foreign warships.

 

“As a result of the STARK incident, our commanders were given a revised set of ROE[11] which clarified their authority to take positive protective measures when hostile intent was manifested. It was emphasized that they do not have to be shot at before responding and that they have an unambiguous responsibility to protect their units and people. To facilitate these measures a Notice to Airmen was reviewed and reissued in September 1987. It advised all nations who operate aircraft in the Persian Gulf region that U.S. Navy ships were taking additional precautions. In particular the need for aircraft operating in those waters to be prepared to identify themselves on specific circuits and to state their intentions was emphasized. Additionally, they were advised that failure to respond to requests for identification, as well as operating in a threatening manner, could place aircraft at risk by U.S. defensive measures. These practices, despite some grumbling, have been generally accepted in the Gulf. Unfortunately, few commercial airlines saw fit to reroute their aircraft or to make any other significant allowances for the hostile environment. Still, it is clear that all concerned were aware that U.S. ships were deployed in the area nod that those units fully intended to defend themselves when necessary. [end of p. 1]

 

“For several months preceding the Air bus shootdown, the U.S. had received reports of Iranian efforts to improve their ability to attack U.S. men-of-war[12] and other types of aircraft to carry a variety of air-to-surface missiles, and to develop small boat ‘swarm’ tactics which could break through a warship’s defensive gunfire. Special occasions, such as Moslem or American holidays, inevitably precipitated intelligence reports that the Iranians were preparing a particular operation directed at Americans. In fact, we had been warned of the possibility of some type of unusual assault on the 4^th of July weekend.

 

“Of especial interest was the recent was the recent shift of Iranian F-14’s from Bushehr to Bandar Abbas. In the few days preceding this incident several F-14 flights, operating from Bandar Abbas, took place in the southern Gulf. On 2 July, USS HALSEY[13] had to warn away a potentially threatening Iranian F-14.

 

“Upon arrival in the region every unit, including VINCINNES, was briefed on our past experience, the current ROE, and most recent intelligence. It is fair to say that incoming ships approach Gulf operations aware of the uncertain environment and with an appreciation of the need for vigilance. Similarly, they have been impressed with their responsibility to defend themselves in a forehanded manner….

 

“The events that led up to the tragedy on 3 July were typical of the everyday patterns in the Gulf. On 2 July, Iranian gunboats in the Gulf had positioned themselves in the western approaches to the Straits of Hormuz and were challenging transiting merchantmen. MONTGOMERY[14] was located sufficiently close to a ship attack in progress to respond to a request for distress assistance and to fire warning shots to ward off IRGC[15] units attacking a merchant vessel.

 

“On the morning of 3 July, MONTGOMERY observed seven IRGC small boats approaching a Pakistani vessel. The number shortly thereafter grew to 13 and they began to challenge nearby merchantmen. VINCNNES was ordered to the area to support MONTGOMERY and launched a helicopter to reconnoiter the scene. In the process the helicopter was fired upon. VINCENNES and MONTGOMERY closed the general areas of the small boats. Two of the boats turned toward VINCENNES and MONTGOMERY while the others began to maneuver erratically. These actions were interpreted as manifesting hostile intent and both ships, after being given permission, engaged. This action, involving high speed course changes and gunfire at close range, was still in progress when Air Bus 655 took off from the joint military/civilian airfield at Bandar Abba and headed toward Dubai. It is hard to overemphasize the fact that Bandar Abbas is also a military airfield. The Air Bus was probably not informed of the surface action taking place in the Strait. Informed or not, Flight 655 logically appeared to have a direct relationship to the ongoing surface engagement. [end of p. 2.]

 

“Even this brief and simplistic description, leads to the opinion, which the investigation drew, that Iran must share the responsibility for the tragedy. Given the fat that the surface engagement was initiated by the Iranians, I believe that the actions of Iran were the proximate cause of this accident and would argue that Iran must bear the principal responsibility for the tragedy. By any measure it was unconscionable to ignore the repeated warnings of U.S. forces concerning potential hazards of flight in the Gulf. It was especially reprehensible to allow an airliner to take off from a joint ‘military/civilian’ airfield and fly directly into the midst of a gunfight. As for the aircraft itself, its failure not to monitor the international air distress net and not to respond to challenges was significantly negligent….

 

“During the critical seven minutes that Flight 655 was airborne, Captain Rogers[16] and his CIC[17] watch team were integrating a multitude of ongoing events. Specifically, VINCENNES was engaged in a high-speed surface battle with at least two groups of Iranian small boats — all of which had the capability to inflict serious personnel and equipment damage on VINCENNES and MONTGOMERY. Any one of these could have been a terrorist platform prepared to make a suicide run against either ship. At the same time, she was monitoring one of her helos which was airborne and had already come under attack from the Iranian small boats. CIC was also tracking an Iranian P-3 military aircraft airborne approximately 60 nautical miles to the northwest which was presenting a classic targeting profile. (i.e., furnishing information to an attack aircraft.) Captain Rogers was given and assumed tactical command of the MONTGOMERY and SIDES.[18] He was also prepared to assume tactical command of U.S. combat aircraft ordered in and approaching the scene from outside the Persian Gulf. Additionally, VINCENNES was dealing with a fouled gun mount and maneuvering extensively to keep her remaining gun unmasked to engage the multiple target threat. At one point she was forced to make a full rudder turn at 30 knots which caused the ship to heel sharply and added to the drama.

 

“In the midst of this highly charged environment, an unknown aircraft took off from a joint military/civilian airport on a flight path headed directly toward VINCENNES and MONTGOMERY. This was the same airfield from which Iran had launched F-4’s in support of an attack on U.S. naval forces on 18 April and from which Iran had repeatedly launched F-14 fighter aircraft during the prior week. This unknown aircraft was 27 minutes behind any scheduled commercial airline departure from Bandar Abbas airport.[19] Although it was flying within a known commercial air corridor, it was off the centerline some 3 or 4 miles, which was not the usual centerline profile for commercial air traffic previously monitored by VINCENNES. Moreover, its mid-range altitude was consistent with either a hostile or commercial aircraft.

 

“VINCENNES could detect no radar emanations from the contact which might identify it,[20] but was reading a MODE III IFF.[21] This situation [end p. p.3] was confused somewhat when a Mode II IFF[22] squawk was detected and the aircraft was identified as an F-14[23]….the unknown contact continued at a gradually increasing speed on a course headed toward VINCENNES and MONTGOMERY.  It failed to respond to repeated challenges from VINCENNES over both the military and international emergency distress frequencies[24]….the threatening contact was closing abut 5-6 miles a minute…his decision time [Captain Rogers] was less than 5 minutes…. [p. 4]

 

“The Commanding Officer [Rogers] did not put emphasis on the air corridor [for civilian aircraft from the Bandar Abbas airport] being 20 miles wide. In fact, his experience in the Gulf suggested that commercial aircraft normally tried had to stay directly on the center line. He believed that 3 to 4 miles off the center axis as unusual and should be considered. In actual fact, however, it is again a peripheral point. An attacker would probably prefer to be in an air corridor if it confused his target. The Persian Gulf is blanketed by air corridors; they cover over 50% of the Gulf. Being in an air corridor is secondary information at best and must be combined with altitude, voice transmissions, etc., to be conclusive.

 

“By far the most puzzling mistake to me was the ultimate misreading of altitude. The investigation established that the range and altitude information passed to the Commanding Officer was correct until the contact reached approximately 15NM. The time was 0653:45Z. Shortly thereafter, at a range between 15 and 12 miles, the Tactical Information Coordinator (TIC) reported that the altitude (which he estimated had previously reached 11,000 feet) was decreasing.[25] At that moment, the Commanding Officer was rapidly reaching a point of no return with his Standard missiles and was inside the potential Iranian air-to-surface missile threat envelope….the investigation concluded that the time from the first report of decreasing altitude to the decision to fire was in the neighbourhood of 20 to 30 seconds…. [p. 5.]

 

“The Commanding Officer testified that it was only one piece of information among many. In this reviewing officer’s opinion, it is unlikely that this one piece of information would have settled the issue one way or another given the uncertainties that remained and the extremely short time left….[26]

 

“Given the time available, the Commanding Officer could hardly meet his obligation to protect his ship and crew and also clear up all of the possible ambiguities. It is not unusual in combat to have to deal with uncertainties and conflicting information. Although it might not seem fair, commanding officers do not have the luxury of reconciling all such questions before committing themselves.[27] They have to go with the weight of evidence. These are the realities of combat and the commanding officer, if he is to function effectively, must be given some latitude to deal with them….[28] [p. 6.]

 

“…I recommend that some additional human engineering be done on the display systems of AEGIS. The objective would be to better equip it for assisting with rapid decisions in a situation such as VINCENNES confronted. Secretary Carlucci[29] and I visited. The AEGIS mock-up at Wallop’s Island [VA] for a briefing on AEGIS and a partial reconstruction of the Flight 655 shootdown. It seemed to our inexperienced eyes that the Commanding Officer should have some way of separating crucial information from other data. Moreover, the vital data should be displayed in some fashion on the LSD[30] so the Commanding Officer and his main assistants do not have to shift their attention back and forth between displays….” [p. 8.]  (Signed: William J. Crowe, Jr., Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff.)

 

Barry and Charles: “The modern navy has many ladders. Its officers can earn their stripes at sea or in the air. They can prosper by navigating the shoals of technocracy. But the one sure path to glory is the same as in Roman times: victory at sea. Sailing in harm’s way is a matter of vocation.

 

“Capt. Will Rogers III, USN, spent his career preparing for combat. Winning his commission in December 1965 at the age of 27, Rogers came late to the navy, but he made up for lost time with a gung-ho attitude and-after a spell on the staff of the chief of naval operations –friends in high places. In 1987, Rogers won command of the navy’s most prized high-tech hip, an Aegis cruiser. The billion-dollar Vincennes seemed a sure ticket to flag rank. But Rogers, who, like many peacetime naval officers had never been under fire, longed to see action.

 

“On July 3, 1988, Captain Rogers got his wish. He sought out and engaged the enemy in a sea battle in the Persian Gulf. From the captain’s chair of a warship’s combat information center, he made life-and-death decisions in the heat of conflict. It was the moment he had yearned and trained for, and it should have been the apex of his life in the service.

 

“Only it wasn’t much of a battle. Rogers had blundered into a murky, half-secret confrontation between the United States and Iran that the politicians did not want to declare and the top brass was not eager to wage. The enemy was not a disciplined naval force but ragtag irregulars in lightly armed speedboats. Fighting them with an Aegis cruiser was like shooting at rabbits with a radar-guided missile. And when it was over, the only confirmed casualties were innocent civilians: 290 passengers and crew in an Iranian Airbus that Captain Rogers’s men mistook for an enemy warplane.

 

“The destruction of Iran Air Flight 655 was an appalling human tragedy…. For the navy, it was a professional disgrace. The navy’s most expensive surface warship, designed to track and shoot down as many as 200 incoming missiles at once, had blown apart an innocent civilian airliner in its first time in combat. What’s more, NEWSWEEK has learned, the Vincennes was inside Iranian territorial waters at the time of the shoot-down–in clear violation of international law. The top Pentagon brass understood from the beginning that if the whole truth about the Vincennes came out, it would mean months of humiliating headlines. So the U.S. Navy did what all navies do after terrible blunders at sea: it told lies and handed out medals.

 

“This is the story of a naval fiasco, of an overeager captain, panicked crewmen, and the cover-up that followed. A NEWSWEEK investigation, joined by ABC News’s “Nightline,” encountered months of stonewalling by senior naval officers. Some of the evasions were products of simple denial; a number of the seamen and officers aboard the Vincennes that morning in July 1988 are still in therapy today, wrestling with guilt. But the Pentagon’s official investigation into the incident, the Fogarty Report, is a pastiche of omissions, half-truths and outright deceptions. It was a cover-up approved at the top, by Adm. William Crowe, then chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

 

“Captain Rogers insisted to “Nightline” last week that he had made the “proper decision.” He opened fire only to protect his ship and crew, he said. But drawing on declassified documents, video and audiotape from the ships involved in the incident, and well over 100 interviews, NEWSWEEK has pieced together an account that belies the skipper’s stoic defense. It is almost a parable for an era of “limited” warfare, with its blurry rules of engagement and its lethal technology in frightened young hands. It is as well an age-old story of hubris, of a warrior who wanted war too much.

 

“At 6:33 local time on the Vincennes, on the morning of July 3, the phone buzzed in Will Rogers’s cramped sleeping quarters….

 

“Some 50 miles to the northeast, the U.S. Navy frigate Montgomery was coming through the western entrance of the Strait of Hormuz. Every day, tankers bearing half the world’s imported oil wend their way through the strait, only 32 miles wide at its choke point. The Iran-Iraq War had turned the strait into a gantlet. Gunboats of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard, based on the islands of Hengam and Abu Musa, had been attacking tankers and merchantmen bound to and from Kuwait, Iraq’s main ally in the war. Anxious to keep Kuwait’s oil flowing, the United States had agreed to provide escort to Kuwaiti tankers registered under the U.S. flag.

 

“On this July morning, the Montgomery spotted a half-dozen Revolutionary Guard launches venturing out from their island hideouts. On his own, Rogers decided to enter the fray. At 6:33, the Vincennes log records, he ordered “all ahead flank.” The cruiser’s four massive gas-turbine engines cranked up 80,000 horsepower and sent the warship smashing through the waves at 30 knots….

 

“At 7:22, the Vincennes’s SH-60B Seahawk helicopter lifted off and sped north; within 20 minutes it was circling over the Iranian gunboats. The pilot of Ocean Lord 25, Lt. Mark Collier, found the gunboats hovering around a German cargo vessel, the Dhaulagiri. They weren’t shooting. It was a common harassment tactic….

 

“The Vincennes had a dubious reputation inside the U.S. fleet in the gulf. Officers on other ships sarcastically referred to the ship as ‘Robocruiser.’ In deskbound war games in San Diego, just before the Vincennes left for the gulf, Rogers consistently pushed beyond the exercise’s rules of engagement, according to another participant. At a Subic Bay, Philippines, briefing on the rules of engagement in the Persian Gulf, the most senior officer attending from the Vincennes was a lieutenant. In early June, Rogers infuriated Capt. Robert Hattan, the commander of the frigate USS Sides, by ordering him to close in on an Iranian warship in a w he deemed provocative. Hattan refused–and fleet headquarters in Bahrain backed him up. By early July, Rogers was widely regarded as ‘trigger happy,’ according to several high-ranking officers.

 

“He was unquestionably eager to get at the gunboats trailing after the Montgomery. Onward the Vincennes charged, past the German merchantman (which nonchalantly flashed an “A-OK” signal) until it drew abreast of the Montgomery at 8:38. By now, Oman’s coast guard was on the radio, ordering the Revolutionary Guard boats to head home. The Omanis wanted the Vincennes to leave, too. ” U.S. Navy warship,” an Omani officer intoned over the radio, “maneuvers at speeds up to 30 knots are not in accordance with innocent passage. Please leave Omani waters. “By chance, a navy cameraman named Rudy Pahoyo was aboard the Vincennes that day, shooting videotape on the bridge. His video captures the officers’ response to the Omani request. They smirked at each other, and did not bother to reply.

 

“The Omanis weren’t the only ones who wanted the Vincennes out of the area. At 8:40, Captain McKenna in Bahrain returned to his command center and was startled to see that Vincennes was off the top of the Omani peninsula-about 40 miles north from where he believed he had ordered Rogers to remain. In some irritation, McKenna called Rogers and asked him what he was doing. Rogers replied that he was supporting his helo, and that he’d been having communications problems. Unimpressed, McKenna told him to head back toward Abu Musa. ‘You want me to do what?’ Rogers bristled. Over the circuit, McKenna could hear chortles of laughter from the Vincennes combat information center. Now angry, McKenna delivered a flat order: the Vincennes must come south — and the Montgomery, too. He was furious at the attitude of the captain and officers of the hotshot billion-dollar cruiser. ‘Aegis arrogance,’ he muttered to himself. Rogers grudgingly obeyed the order-but he left his helo behind to watch the Iranian boats. It was to be a fatal mistake.

 

“In the cockpit of Ocean Lord 25, pilot Mark Collier could not resist the temptation to follow the gunboats north, as they retreated toward their island lair. He later explained that he wanted to drop down and see how many men were aboard the launches, and how they were armed. He almost found out the hard way. As he banked around them, Collier saw what he later described as ‘eight to 10 bursts of light’ and ‘sparks … just a big spark’ in the sky 100 yards from his helo. He thought for a moment it was the sun glinting off a boat, but then he saw puffs of smoke. ‘Did you see that?’ Collier called out to Petty Officer Scott Zilge. ‘Yeah,” ‘Zilge replied. ‘Let’s get out of here. That was an airburst-antiaircraft fire.’ As Collier dropped the helo to the safety of 100 feet, the aircraft’s commander, Lt. Roger Huff, sitting in the copilot’s seat, radioed the Vincennes: ‘Trinity Sword. This is Ocean Lord 25. We’re taking fire. Executing evasion.’

 

“In the combat information center, this was all Rogers needed. At last the gunboats had committed a hostile act. Under the navy’s rules of engagement in the gulf, Rogers could order hot pursuit. ‘General Quarters,’ he snapped. ‘Full power.” Once again, the Vincennes forged north at 30 knots….

 

“At 9:39, still lacking a clear target, Rogers radioed fleet headquarters and announced his intention to open fire. In Bahrain, Admiral Less’s staff was uneasy. Captain Watkins quizzed Rogers on his position and the bearing of the gunboats. Finally, he asked, ‘Are the contacts clearing the area?’ The question could have been a show stopper. Judging from later testimony, few in the Vincennes CIC that day believed that the ship was under attack. In fact, the gunboats were just slowly milling about–evidently under the impression that they were safe in their own territorial waters. Through the haze, it is doubtful that the low-slung launches could have even seen the Vincennes. Rogers, however, continued to argue for permission to shoot. On the bridge, the lookouts reported that through their giant binoculars-called ‘Big Eyes’ — they could see the launches’ wakes more clearly now, turning randomly this way and that. A couple seemed to be heading in the direction of the Vincennes.

 

“For Rogers, that was enough. He reported to Bahrain that the gunboats were gathering speed and showing hostile intent. Again, he announced his intention to open fire. Aboard his command ship, Less finally concurred. The time was 9:41. On the bridge, the chief quartermaster had just called out that now crossed the 12-mile limit off the coast-into Iranian waters. The Vincennes was operating in violation of international law but Rogers was not paying attention to juridical niceties. Commander Guillory ordered the Vincennes’s guns to fire when ready. Two minutes later the ship’s forward five-inch gun opened up on its first target, a launch 8,000 yards away.

 

“Some 25 miles to the east, aboard the frigate USS Sides, Capt. David Carlson listened and watched Rogers’s maneuvering with mounting incredulity. “Why doesn’t he just push his rudder over and get his ass out of there?” muttered one of the frigate’s officers. When Carlson heard Less assent to Rogers’s request to open fire, Carlson turned to his number two, Lt. Cmdr. Gary Erickson, and gave two thumbs down. Carlson thought there was going to be a massacre. He had no idea.

 

“Some 55 miles to the northeast, at precisely 9:45:30, Iran Air Capt. Mohsen Rezaian announced to the tower at Bandar Abbas airport that his A300B2 Airbus was ready for takeoff. A minute later he throttled up his two General Electric CF6 engines and lifted the airliner into the haze. His course would take the plane and its human cargo southwest to Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates. Though Rezaian could not know it, his flight path would also go almost directly over the USS Vincennes.

 

“At that moment Captain Rogers was sitting in his own cockpit-the darkened, windowless combat information center of the Vincennes, directing a sea battle by remote control. To the uninitiated, the CIC of an Aegis cruiser looks like a luxury video arcade. Rows of operators hunch over radio consoles, each monitoring one element of the battle. All the information from their screens is then integrated by the mighty Aegis computer into, literally, the “big picture”–thrown up as symbols on maps displayed on four giant 42-inch-by-42-inch screens at the head of the room where the captain and his two “battle managers” sit. The $400 million Aegis system can track every aircraft within 300 miles. Its computers tag each contact with the symbol for ‘friendly,’ ‘hostile’ or ‘unidentified’… In war at sea, Aegis is expected to seek and identify all airborne threats to an entire carrier battle group, to display the speed and direction of each, and to rank them by the danger they present. Aegis is so powerful that it can not only track up to 200 incoming enemy aircraft or missiles, but also command missiles to shoot them down. In the full-scale war against the Soviet Union for which Aegis was designed, the captain and crew would have had little choice but to switch the system to automatic-and duck….

 

“Some of the Vincennes’s most senior officers were less than adept at computerized warfare. Under normal procedures, Captain Rogers rarely touched his console. He would have delegated the battle against the launches to Guillory, his tactical officer for surface warfare. But Rogers didn’t entirely trust Guillory, a former personnel officer who was uncomfortable with computers. (His fellow officers in personnel snickered because, one said, instead of plotting job changes by computer spreadsheet, he used his screen as a surface for ‘self-stick’ notes.) In essence, the skipper pushed Guillory aside and ran the battle himself. Rogers set the range on the ‘big picture’ display screen in front of him to 16 miles, to focus on the gunboats. He was oblivious to anything beyond.

 

“At 9:47, the Vincennes’s powerful Spy radar picked up a distant blip-a plane lifting off from the airport at Bandar Abbas. The blip was in fact Iran Air’s Flight 655 on its twice-a-week milk run to Dubai….

 

“…a few seconds after 9:50, someone called out that the incoming plane was a “possible Astro”-the code word for an F-14. No one was ever able to find out who. In Air Alley, the operators thought the word came from the technicians in the ship’s electronic-warfare suite. The technicians thought the warning came from Air Alley. Galvanized by this warning, Petty Officer Anderson again beamed out an IFF query. Ominously, the response he now got back was different. Up on his console flashed a Mode 2: military aircraft. Only much later did investigators figure out that Anderson had forgotten to reset the range on his IFF device. The Mode 2 did not come from the Airbus, climbing peacefully above the gulf, but from an Iranian plane, probably a military transport, still on the runway back in Bandar Abbas….

 

“Rogers was not absolutely sure that his ship did face an enemy warplane. The plane seemed too high–some 7,000 feet-for an attack approach. At his rear, another officer, Lt. William Mountford, warned ‘possible commair.’ Three more times, the warnings went out: ‘Iranian fighter … you are steering into danger and are subject to United States naval defensive measures.’

 

“Then something happened that psychologists call ‘scenario fulfillment’ — you see what you expect. Petty Officers Anderson and Leach both began singing out that the aircraft, now definitively tagged on the big screen as an F-14, was descending and picking up speed. The tapes of the CIC’s data later showed no such thing. Anderson’s screen showed that the plane was traveling 380 knots at 12,000 feet and climbing. Yet Anderson was shouting out that the speed was 455 knots, the altitude 7,800 feet and descending.

 

“Rogers had to make a decision. An F-14 could do little damage to the Vincennes. The version that Washington sold its ally the Shah of Iran in the early 1970s was purely a fighter plane, not configured to strike surface targets. Still, if Rogers meant to attack it with a missile, he had to fire before the aircraft closed much within 10 miles. At 9:54:05, with the plane 11 miles away, Rogers reached up and switched the firing key to “free” the ship’s SM-2 antiaircraft missiles. In Air Alley, Zocher had been given the green light to fire. The young lieutenant was so undone, that he pressed the wrong keys on his console 23 times. A veteran petty officer had to lean over and hit the right ones. With a whoosh, two SM-2s launched into the haze. In the CIC, the lights dimmed momentarily, like a prison’s during an electrocution….

 

“…a lookout came in from the wing of the bridge. The target couldn’t have been an F-14, he said. The wreckage falling from the sky, he murmured to the Vincennes’s executive officer, Cmdr. Richard Poster, is ‘bigger than that.’

 

“A few miles away, on the bridge of the Montgomery, crewmen gaped as a large wing of a commercial airliner, with an engine pod still attached, plummeted into the sea. Aboard the USS Sides, 19 miles away, Captain Carlson was told that his top radar man reckoned the plane had been a commercial airliner. Carlson almost vomited, he said later.

 

“On the Vincennes, there was an eerie silence….Rogers gave the order to head south, out of Iranian waters.

 

“In Washington almost ll hours later, at 1:30 p.m. EST, Adm. William Crowe, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stepped to the podium in the Pentagon press room. Formal in his summer whites, the admiral told reporters there had been a terrible accident. Stressing that the information was incomplete, relying on what he had been told by Captain Rogers, Crowe said that the Iranian airliner was flying outside the commercial air corridor and had failed to respond to repeated warnings. The plane had been descending and picking up speed when it closed in on the Vincennes. Rogers had only been protecting his ship. A large map showed the position of the Vincennes at the time of the shoot-down. It was well within international waters….”

 

[We have ceased less than half-way through this long article. The official Navy report lays out much of the account of how the airliner was shot down. We suggest going to the Newsweek URL for the Barry and Charles article noted in “Sources.”]

 

Encyclopaedia Britannica: “….Immediately after the event, U.S. officials reported that the Iranian airliner had been rapidly descending and was headed toward the Vincennes. In addition, it was stated that Iran Air flight 655 was not within its normal route. However, a U.S. Navy report on July 28, 1988—released to the public in redacted form on August 19 — refuted these claims. It concluded that the Iranian aircraft was actually ascending “within the established air route,” and it was traveling at a much slower speed than reported by the Vincennes. Furthermore, the airliner’s failure to communicate with the Vincennes was dismissed; in contact with two air control towers, the Iranian pilot was likely not checking the international air-distress channel. In the end, U.S. officials concluded that it was “a tragic and regrettable accident.” In explaining how the state-of-the-art cruiser had misidentified Iran Air flight 655, authorities cited “stress…and unconscious distortion of data.” However, U.S. officials also claimed that Iranian aggression played a key role in the incident. In 1990 the U.S. Navy notably awarded Rogers the Legion of Merit for his ‘outstanding service’ during operations in the Persian Gulf.

 

“Some, however, accused the U.S. military of a cover-up. It was noted that investigators failed to interview others near the Vincennes—notably the commander of the USS Sides, some of whose personnel had identified the aircraft as a commercial plane—as well as the surface warfare commander who had ordered Rogers to change course several hours before the incident. In addition, the report’s statement that the Vincennes was in international waters was later acknowledged as incorrect; the cruiser was in Iranian waters….” (Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Iran Air flight 655. Aviation Disaster…Persian Gulf (1988).”)

 

Hammond: “….the Times revealed[31] that…[the US] attempt to blame the Iranians was also untruthful. As the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) determined in an investigation of the incident, seven of the eleven warnings issued by the Americans ‘were transmitted on a military channel that was inaccessible to the airliner crew.’ The other four were transmitted on the international civil aviation distress frequency. Of these, only one, transmitted by the USS Sides ‘39 seconds before the Vincennes fired, was of sufficient clarity that it might have been ‘instantly recognizable’ to the airliner as being directed at it.’….

 

“The US shootdown of Iran Air Flight 655 receives only rare mentions in the US mainstream media despite being a key incident in the history of the US’s relations with Iran that serves as critical context for understanding how Iranians today view the US government.

 

“When it is mentioned, the media’s tendency is to characterize the mass killing as an honest “mistake”, resulting from an action any other country’s navy would have taken if put in the same position. Although it has long been known that the US government’s account of the incident was a pack of lies, the US media to this day characterize it as though the resulting death of civilians was just an unfortunate consequence of war….

 

“The real story, in sum, is as follows:

 

“Twenty-nine years ago, on July 3, 1988, US warships entered Iranian waters and initiated hostilities with Iranian vessels.

 

“The consoles of the radar operators aboard the USS Vincennes at the time unambiguously showed an aircraft ascending within a commercial corridor in Iranian airspace, with the plane’s transponder signaling its identity as a commercial aircraft.

 

“Captain Rogers nevertheless ordered his gunner to open fire on the plane, shooting it out of the sky and killing the 290 civilians on board.

 

“Subsequently, rather than being held accountable for committing a war crime, Rogers and his entire crew received awards for their actions….” (Hammond. “The ‘Forgotten’ US Shootdown of Iranian…655.” Foreign Policy Journal, 7-3-2017.)

 

Kaplan: “….in 1996, President Bill Clinton’s administration expressed ‘deep regret’ and paid the Iranian government $131.8 million in compensation, of which $61.8 million would go to the victims’ families. In exchange, Tehran agreed to drop its case against the United States in the International Court of Justice….” (Kaplan, Fred. “America’s Flight 17. The time the United States blew up a passenger plane — and tried to cover it up.” Slate Magazine, 7-23-2014.)

 

Sources

 

Aspin, Les. “Witness to Iran Flight 655.” New York Times, 11-18-1988. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/18/opinion/witness-to-iran-flight-655.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm

 

Barry, John and Roger Charles. “Sea of Lies.” Newsweek, 7-12-1992. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.newsweek.com/sea-lies-200118

 

Burns, John F. “World Aviation Panel Faults U.S. Navy on Downing of Iran Air.” New York Times, 12-4-1988. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/04/world/world-aviation-panel-faults-us-navy-on-downing-of-iran-air.html

 

Crowe, William J. Jr. (Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff). Memorandum to Secretary of Defense [8 pages] constituting Second Endorsement on Rear Admiral Fogarty’s letter of 28 July 1988, Subject: Formal Investigation into the Circumstances Surrounding the Downing of Iran Air Flight 655 on 3 July 1988. Eight-page memo is in 77-page Investigation Report [Fogarty Report] (AD-A203 577). Accessed 9-2-2018 at: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a203577.pdf

 

Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Iran Air flight 655. Aviation Disaster, Over the Strait of Hormuz, Persian Gulf (1988).” Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Air-flight-655

 

Evans, David (retired Marine Lt. Colonel). “Vincennes: A Case Study.” Proceedings, U.S. Naval Institute, Vol. 119/8/1,086, Aug 1993. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1993-08/vincennes-case-study

 

Fisher, Max. “The forgotten story of Iran Air Flight 655.” Washington Post, 10-16-2013. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/10/16/the-forgotten-story-of-iran-air-flight-655/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.0e9eec81a4f7

 

Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. Knopf, 2005. Google preview accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://books.google.com/books?id=jp2mZr7BoGsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=vincennes&f=false

 

Halloran, Richard. “26 Iranians Seized With Mine Vessel; More U.S. Shooting.” New York Times. 9-23-1987. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/23/world/26-iranians-seized-with-mine-vessel-more-us-shooting.html

 

Hammond, Jeremy R. “The ‘Forgotten’ US Shootdown of Iranian Airliner Flight 655.” Foreign Policy Journal, 7-3-2017. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2017/07/03/the-forgotten-us-shootdown-of-iranian-airliner-flight-655%C2%AD/

 

Kaplan, Fred. “America’s Flight 17. The time the United States blew up a passenger plane — and tried to cover it up.” Slate Magazine, 7-23-2014. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/war_stories/2014/07/the_vincennes_downing_of_iran_air_flight_655_the_united_states_tried_to.html

 

Navy News Service. “Navy Decommissions San Diego-based USS Sides.” 2-15-2004. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=5855

 

Navysite.de. “USS Elmer Montgomery (FF 1082).” Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://www.navysite.de/ff/ff1082.htm

 

Peniston, Bradley. “The Day Frigate Samuel B. Roberts Was Mined.” USNI News, The U.S. Naval Institute, 5-22-2015. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://news.usni.org/2015/05/22/the-day-frigate-samuel-b-roberts-was-mined

 

Sturkey, Marion F. Mayday. Accident Reports and Voice Transcripts from Airline Crash Investigations. Plum Branch, SC: Heritage Press International, 2005.

 

U.S. Navy. USS Halsey. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: http://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/ddg97/Pages/default.aspx#.W4w_0LgnanI

 

Wikipedia. “Bridgeton incident.” 7-22-2018 edit. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton_incident

 

Wikipedia. “Frank Carlucci.” 8-6-2018 edit. Accessed 9-2-2018 at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Carlucci

 

Wikipedia. “Iran Air Flight 655.” 9-2-2018 edit. Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655

 

Additional Material

 

Craig, Dan, Dan Morales, Mike Oliver. “USS Vincennes Incident” (Slide Presentation). Accessed 9-2-2018 at: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-422-human-supervisory-control-of-automated-systems-spring-2004/projects/vincennes.pdf

 

[1] “While no passenger manifest nor list of deceased has been released by Iran, various sources have established that some 290 persons from six nations, were on board Iran Air Flight 655.”

[2] Sturkey adds: “The [Airbus] captain, age 38, had been trained in the United States. His daughter, age five, had been born there, and his sister-in-law still lived in Norman, Oklahoma.” (p. 260)

[3] Robert Fisk notes this was a daily flight. (The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. 2005.)

[4] Some crewmembers may have believed this and reported so to the Captain, but later review of the stored Aegis computer system showed screenshots identifying the plane’s transponder reading as a civilian plane at high altitude (Sturkey notes 13,500 feet when struck) and ascending. See reporting below.

[5] Seven minutes, 29 seconds after takeoff. (p. 261)

[6] Sturkey: “The high explosive warheads sent 12,000 steel projectiles ripping out in all directions. The left wind and empennage of the Airbus tore away. The fuselage ripped open, and the wreckage tumbled fown in flames toward the sea. The fall took 82 seconds…” (pp. 263-264)

[7] “The Bridgeton incident was the mining of the supertanker SS Bridgeton near Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf on July 24, 1987. The ship was sailing in the first convoy of Operation Earnest Will, the U.S. response to Kuwaiti requests to protect its tankers from attack amid the Iran-Iraq War. The explosion of an Iranian mine in the Gulf’s shipping channel damaged Bridgeton’s outer hull but did not prevent it from completing its voyage.” (Wikipedia. “Bridgeton incident.” 7-22-2018 edit.)

[8] See our document accessed via the Spreadsheet,  on May 17, 1987 event wherein the USS Stark was hit by Iraqi Air Force Mirage missiles in the Persian Gulf, killing 37 U.S. servicemen.

[9] On April 14, 1988, while in the Persian Gulf, the USS Samuel B. Roberts, a Perry-class guided missile frigate, struck an Iranian mine causing major damage. There were serious burn injuries but no loss of life. (Peniston, Bradley. “The Day Frigate Samuel B. Roberts Was Mined.” USNI News, The U.S. Naval Institute, 5-22-2015.)

[10] We assume this is a reference to the U.S. attack on and seizure of the Iran Ajr, an Iranian mine-laying ship, on 9-21-1987, killing three Iranian sailors and seizing 26 others, including four injured. (Halloran, Richard. “26 Iranians Seized With Mine Vessel; More U.S. Shooting.” New York Times. 9-23-1987.)

[11] Rules of Engagement.

[12] In the original there is a period here and then a line of separation before picking up with “and other types…”

[13] Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer (DDG 97). (U.S. Navy. USS Halsey. Accessed 9-2-2018.)

[14] A Knox-class frigate. “Decommissioned and stricken from the Navy list on June 30, 1993, the ELMER MONTGOMERY was transferred to Turkey on December 13, 1993.” (navysite.de “USS Elmer Montgomery (FF 1082).

[15] Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.

[16] Captain William C. Rogers III, captain of the USS Vincennes.

[17] Combat Information Center.

[18] Guided-missile frigate (FFG 14) Decommissioned 2-15-2003 at San Diego, CA. (Navy News Service. “Navy Decommissions San Diego-based USS Sides.” 2-15-2004.)

[19] Actually the flight was on-time. From Sturkey: “Within the CIC in ‘Air Alley’ a petty officer manually checked the list of airline flights over the gulf that morning: Flight 655 was on the list but the petty officer did not see it, most likely because of the four time zones in the gulf.” (p. 265)

[20] Sturkey: “The Aegis computer flashed an electronic query to the bogey’s transponder. The response came back immediately: Mode III, Code 6760 [unique to Flight 655]. This indicated the bogey was a commercial airliner, called ‘ComAir.’” (p. 265)

[21] “…a signal that identified it as a civilian aircraft…” (Wikipedia. “Iran Air Flight 655.” 9-2-2018 edit.)

[22] Used by Iranian military aircraft. (Wikipedia. “Iran Air Flight 655.” 9-2-2018 edit.)

[23] Sturkey: “Air Alley queried the bogey’s transponder again, and this time the response was different: Mode II, Code 1100. A warplane! The Air Alley operator had forgotten to reset the range for the query. Consequently, the query triggered the transponder on an Iranian military aircraft still at the airport.” (p. 265)

[24] This has been challenged. Robert Fisk has written: “Before the Airbus was 40 kilometres from his warship Rogers had sent a routinely worded warning — but addressed it to a fighter aircraft: ‘Iranian aircraft…fighter on course two-one-one, speed 360 knots, altitude 9,000 feet, this is USNWS {United States Navy warship} bearing two-zero-two from you, request you change course immediately to two-seven-zero, if you maintain current course you are standing into danger and subject to USN defensive measures…’” (The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. Knopf, 2005.)

[25] It wasn’t. The Vincennes was equipped with a computerized Aegis defensive system, which provided  an electronic recording of the engagement. When played back “Aegis provides records demonstrating that its electronics never said the airplane was descending toward the Vincennes or squawking a military signal.” (Aspin, Les. “Witness to Iran Flight 655.” New York Times, 11-18-1988.)

[26] Blanchard: On the other hand, given such uncertainties and the fact that one of the Air Alley officers shouted ‘Possible ComAir,’ one other possible course of action would have been to change course to withdraw from Iranian territorial waters back into international water and disengage in exchanging gunfire with Iranian gunboats, which the Vincennes had initiated.

[27] Blanchard: On the other hand one might write “Although it might not seem fair, commanding officers” must not attack a plane in a commercial flight zone, until sure that it is not a commercial passenger airliner.

[28] One of the factors not mentioned by Admiral Crowe was the Captain’s aggressiveness. According to Robert Fisk: For Captain David Carlson, commanding the Sides, the destruction of the airliner ‘marked the horrifying climax to Captain Rogers’ aggressiveness, first seen just four weeks earlier.’ On 2 June, two of Rogers’s colleagues had been disturbed by the way he sailed the Vincennes too close to an Iranian frigate that was carrying out a lawful though unprecedented search of a bulk carrier for war materiel bound for Iraq. On the day the Vincennes shot down the Airbus, Rogers had launched a helicopter that flew within 2 to 3 miles of an Iranian small craft — the rules stated that the chopper had to be no closer than 4 miles — and reportedly came under fire. Rogers began shooting at some small Iranian military boats, an act that disturbed Captain David Carlson on the Sides. ‘Why do you want an Aegis cruiser out there shooting up boats?’ he later asked in an interview with an ex-naval officer. ‘It wasn’t a smart thing to do. He was storming off with no plan…’ Rogers subsequently opened fire on Iranian boats inside their territorial waters. The Vincennes had already been nicknamed ‘Robocruiser’ by the crew of the Sides….”

[29] Frank Charles Carlucci III  served as Secretary of Defense from 1987 to 1989 in the Reagan Administration. (Wikipedia. “Frank Carlucci.” 8-6-2018 edit.)

[30] Large Screen Display.

[31] Burns, John F. “World Aviation Panel Faults U.S. Navy on Downing of Iran Air.” New York Times, 12-4-1988.

—  6  Baugher, Joseph F.  1961 USAF Serial Numbers. 10-29-2011 revision.

—  6  Kokomo Tribune, IN. “Transport plane crash kills six Guardsmen.” 6-9-1988, p. 21.

—  6  Roswell Daily Record, NM.  “Air Force probes C-130 crash.” 6-10-1988, p. 3.

 

Narrative Information

 

Baugher: “Lockheed C-130E-LM Hercules….2373 (c/n 382-3720) crashed during training landing at Greenville, MS Jun 8, 1988.  6 killed.”  (Baugher, Joseph F. 1961 USAF Serial Numbers.  10-29-2011 revision.)

 

June 9, AP: “Greenville, Miss. (AP) – A military transport plane was practicing touch-and-go landings before it crashed and burned in a fireball, killing the six Air National Guardsmen aboard, authorities and witnesses said. Four bodies had been recovered from the wreckage of the C-130 turboprop as of late Wednesday, said Col. Dennis Wood, a spokesman for the Air Force Base in Little Rock, Ark., where the plane was based.

 

“The plane was about a mile short of the Greenville Municipal Airport runway when it crashed Wednesday afternoon.  Workers were using lights to search through the night for the bodies of the two others.

 

“Witnesses said the plane appeared to veer to its left as it was landing and crashed into a clearing

near the runway.  “I didn’t see it come down.  When I saw it, it was a just a big fireball,” said Reggie Kellems, who was driving a tractor about 100 yards away. “There was debris flying all up in the air.”

 

“Military authorities sealed off the area shortly after the crash.  Air Force officials said the plane was on a training mission.  “They had been with us for some time doing touch-and-go training landings,” said Richard Brewer, air traffic manager at the northeast Mississippi airport.  “The plane was in the pattern and the first we knew something was wrong was when it impacted.”

 

“Air Force officials said they couldn’t confirm that it was practicing a touch-and-go landing when it crashed.

 

“In September 1986, a C-130 practicing touch-and-go landings crashed at Fort Campbell, Ky., killing three of the five National Guardsmen aboard.  A survivor said the plane had lost an engine.  In June 1987, three Navy aviators died when their EA-3B Skywarrior electronic warfare jet crashed during a touch-and-go drill at Miramar Naval Air Station in San Diego.”  (Kokomo Tribune, IN. “Transport plane crash kills six Guardsmen.” 6-9-1988, p. 21.)

 

June 10, AP: “Greenville, Miss. (AP) — Air Force investigators picked through wreckage Thursday for clues to the cause of a plane crash that killed six Air National Guardsmen as they completed a series of touch-and-go landings.  The C-130 transport plane plunged into a soybean field and burst into a fireball about a mile short of the Greenville Airport on Wednesday afternoon.  “Investigators are looking for important pieces of wreckage, things that could give us a clue to what happened,” said Maj. Jim Bates, a spokesman for Little Rock (Ark.) Air Force Base, where the plane had left

about 1 p.m. Wednesday.  ‘They’ll be able to get an indication of what the impact was like.”

 

“Using search lights, rescue workers pulled the last two bodies from the wreckage of the four-engine turboprop about 1:30 a.m. said Col. Dennis Wood, interim head of the investigating team.

At a news conference Thursday, Wood said investigators believe a student pilot and an instructor were at the controls when the plane crashed.  Wood said the plane had just completed a touch-and-go landing at the civilian airport and was returning for another in a scheduled training exercise.  The plane’s approach would have completed the exercise, said Lt. Michele McDowell, a base spokeswoman.  ‘They were about to get finished.  They were at the end of their training mission there,” she said.

 

“Investigators will review control tower tapes to learn what occurred just before the 2:40 p.m. accident, Wood said.  The large cargo plane, which was manufactured in 1961, did not have a flight recorder, he said.  Newer C-130s have flight recorders, he said, and the Air Force is modifying older models with recorders — standard on commercial airplanes, Wood said….

 

“In touch-and-go drills, a pilot allows the plane’s wheels to briefly touch the runway before taking off again.  The drills often simulate a ground drop in combat conditions, in which cargo would be dumped out of the moving plane.

 

“The aircraft was assigned to the 189th Tactical Airlift Group of the Arkansas Air National Guard.  A spokeswoman for the Little Rock base, Airman 1^st Class Deborah Doyle, identified the dead as:

 

Maj. Andries R. Zwaan, 39, a pilot with the 189th;

Staff Sgt. David Bingham, 24…181st Tactical Airlift Squadron…Hensley Field, Dallas; 2nd Lt. Mark R. Brandt, 24…180th Tactical Airlift Squadron at Rosecrans  Municipal

Airport at St. Joseph, Mo.;

2^nd Lt. Thomas D. Leece, 28, of the 934th Tactical Airlift Group of Minneapolis;

Master Sgts. Edwin J. Smith Jr., 35, and

Danny W. Holland, 39, both of the 189th.”

 

(Roswell Daily Record, NM.  “Air Force probes C-130 crash.” 6-10-1988, p. 3.)

 

Sources

 

Baugher, Joseph F. 1961 USAF Serial Numbers. 10-29-2011 revision. Accessed 2-23-2012 at: http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_serials/1961.html

 

Kokomo Tribune, IN. “Transport plane crash kills six Guardsmen.” 6-9-1988, p. 21. Accessed at:  http://newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=115551062

 

Roswell Daily Record, NM.  “Air Force probes C-130 crash [Greenville, MS].” 6-10-1988, p. 3. Accessed at: http://newspaperarchive.com/FullPagePdfViewer.aspx?img=160262832

—          >10,000  Avery, W. M. (Exec. Dir., Ctr. For Environmental Physiology), projection.[1]

—  5,000-10,000  Hill, Jerry. Kentucky Weather. Univ. Press of KY, 2005, p. 108.[2]

–~5,000-10,000  Lott and Ross, NCDC. Tracking and Evaluating U.S. Billion Dollar… 2005.[3]

–~5,000-10,000  NCDC. Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters. 2007.[4]

–~5,000-10,000  NCDC. “Billion Dollar US Weather Disasters 1980-1994.”[5]

–~5,000-10,000  MI State Police. Michigan Hazard Mitigation Plan ( 2014 update). P. 153.[6]

–~5,000-10,000  Ross & Lott. A Climatology of Recent Extreme Weather…Events,  2000, p. 6.[7]

—              7,500  Tenkotte/Claypool. Encyclopedia of North. [KY]. “Weather…Climate,” 942.[8]

—              5,000  (heat stress, June 1-Aug 31). NCDC. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate…[9]

—              1,092  1987-88 excessive heat deaths, primary or contributing cause on death certificates.[10]

—          913-921  Blanchard tally[11] of State breakouts below.[12]

—                 524  CDC WONDER search for E900.0, E900.1, and E900.9 code deaths.[13]

—                 454  LA Times (Pasternak). “Death toll from heat rises to nearly 300…” 7-18-1995.

—                 177  NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No’s 5-11, 1988.

 

Summary of data on heat-related deaths by State and the District of Columbia

 

Alabama                                      7

Arizona                                      22                     

California                                  37

Colorado                                      2

Connecticut                                 2

Delaware                                      3

District of Columbia                   8

Florida                                         7

Georgia                                 20-21

Illinois                                     341

Indiana                                  39-44

Iowa                                              4

Kansas                                       10

Kentucky                                   11

Louisiana                                     3

Maryland                                     4

Massachusetts                           40

Michigan                                ~121

Minnesota                                    1

Mississippi                                 10

Missouri                                42-44

Montana                                      2

Nebraska                                      1

Nevada                                         2

New Hampshire                          1

New Jersey                                  2

New York                                   18

North Carolina                          15

Ohio                                           25

Oklahoma                                  11

Oregon                                         5

Pennsylvania                             19

Rhode Island                               1

South Carolina                            7

South Dakota                               3

Tennessee                                     8

Texas                                          35

Utah                                              3

Virginia                                        9

Washington                                 1

Wisconsin                                  11

            Total                      913-921

 

Breakout of Heat-Related Fatalities by State

 

Alabama                    (  7)

–7  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–1  Conecuh Co., Male, 75-84. E900.0 (Hyperthermia, excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Geneva Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900,0 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Jefferson Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900.0 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Mobile Co., Mobile, June 29. Heatstroke (autopsy result); female, 77, in her home, 90° outside.[14]

–1  Pike County, locality/date not noted. Male, 85+, E900.0 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Shelby Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 15-19, E900.0 (excessive heat) CDC WONDER.

–1  Sumter Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 55-64, E900.0 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

Arizona                      (22)

–22  State. AZ Dept. of Health Services, Environmental Toxicology, Climate & Health Pgm.[15]

—  1  Gila Co., Location/date not noted. Male, 75-84. E900.0 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., Mesa, Aug 19. Boy, 2, in hot car (~200°); relatives forgot to remove him at home.[16]

—  1  Maricopa Co., Tolleson, July 22. Male, heatstroke; dairy farm worker after loading hay.[17]

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Female, 45-54, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Female, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  2  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Females, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Male, 1-4, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Male, 20-24, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Male, 25-34, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  6  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  2  Maricopa Co., location/date not noted. Male, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Pinal County, location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Pinal County, location/date not noted. Male, 35-44. E900.1 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Pinal County, location/date not noted. Male, 55-64. E900.1 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Pinal County, location/date not noted. Male, 75-84. E900.1 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

California                  (37)

–37  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–36  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of California heat-related fatalities by locality:

—  1  Alameda County, location/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Imperial County, location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Imperial County, location/date not noted. Male, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Kern County, location/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Kern County, location/date not noted. Male, 45-54, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  3  Los Angeles County, locations/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 85+

–1  Male, 25-34

–1  Male, 55-64

—  1  Mendocino Co., location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Merced County, location/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Monterey County, location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

—  1  Orange County, location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–12  Riverside County, location/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900 (Excessive heat). CDC WONDER

–1  Female, 55-64.

–1  Female, 65-74.

–1  Male, <1 year-old.

–1  Male, 15-19.

–2  Male, 25-34.

–1  Male, 35-44.

–2  Male, 45-54.

–1  Male, 55-64.

–2  Male, 65-74.

— 4  San Bernardino County. Blanchard tally of breakouts below.

–1  SB County desert, Aug 31 (body found Dec 4). Marine, 19, during exercise.[18]

–1  Male, 25-34, location/date not noted., E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 35-44, location/date not noted. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 65-74, location/date not noted. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  San Diego Co., location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  San Diego Co., location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  San Francisco Co., location/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  San Joaquin Co., location/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Santa Clara Co., location/date not noted. Female, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Santa Clara Co., location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Santa Cruz Co., location/date not noted. Male, 20-24, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Stanislaus Co., location/date not noted. Female, 55-64, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Yolo County, location/date not noted. Male, 75-84, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

Colorado                    (  2)

— 2  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Jefferson Co., location/date not noted. Male, 35-44. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Weld County, location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

Connecticut               (  2)

— 2  Hartford Co., location/date not noted. Females, 75-84. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

Delaware                    (  3)

— 3  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Kent County, location/date not noted. Female, 75-84. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Kent County, location/date not noted. Female, 85+. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 1  Kent County, location/date not noted. Male, 15-19. E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

 

District of Columbia (  8)

— 8  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–2  Females, 75-84, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 85+, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 45-54, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 55-64, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–2  Males, 65-74, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 75-84, ICD-9, E900 (excessive heat). CDC WONDER.

— 6  July 17-19. Four men and two women. NCDC, Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, 1988, p. 37.

–1  July 17. Female, 77. Key West Citizen. “Late night temperatures…” 7-20-1988, p. 2.

–1  July 18. Female, 77. Key West Citizen. “Late night temperatures…” 7-20-1988, p. 2.

–1  July 18. Male, 30s-40s. Key West Citizen. “Late night temps…” 7-20-1988, p. 2.

 

Florida                       (  7)

— 7  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 2  State. Lushine (NWS). “Underreporting of Heat and Cold Related Deaths in Florida.”[19]

Breakout of Florida heat-related fatalities by locality:

— 1  Charlotte Co., location/date not noted. Male, 65-74, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Gilchrist Co., location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Martin County, location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Miami-Dade Co., location/date not noted. Male, 1-4, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Monroe County, location/date not noted. Male 35-44, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Monroe County, location/date not noted. Male 45-54, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Monroe County, Key West, Sep 21. Heatstroke; male construction worker. OSHA.[20]

— 1  Wakulla Co., location/date not noted. Male 55-64, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

 

Georgia                      (20-21)

–20-21  Blanchard tally based on locality breakouts below.[21]

–18  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Georgia heat-related fatalities by locality:

— 1  Bibb County, Macon, June 27. Heatstroke; male, 52, at rescue mission.[22]

— 1  Bibb County, location/date not noted. Female, 45-54, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Clayton Co., location/date not noted. Female, 45-54, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dodge County, Eastman, July 15. Heatstroke; male, 86. NCDC, Storm Data, 30/7, p. 29.[23]

— 1  Dodge Co., Milan, June 18. Heatstroke; female, 45-54,[24] trailer with no A/C in open field.[25]

— 1  Dougherty County, Albany, July 1. Heatstroke; female, 74, in her home.[26]

— 1  Floyd Co., location/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Floyd Co., location/date not noted. Male, 75-84, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Fulton Co., location/date not noted. Female, 75-84, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Fulton Co., location/date not noted. Male, 55-64, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Grady Co., location/date not noted. Male, 75-84, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Hall Co., Gainesville, June 25. Apparent heatstroke; female, 68, while doing yard work.[27]

— 1  Jackson Co., location/date not noted. Male, 65-74, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Muscogee County, Columbus, Aug 5. Heatstroke; male, 71, after mowing grass at home.[28]

— 1  Newton Co., location/date not noted. Female, 65-74, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Peach County, location/date not noted. Male 45-54, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Randolph Co., location/date not noted. Male, 35-44, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Telfair Co., location/date not noted. Female, 1-4, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Thomas Co., ~June 24. Heart attack brought on by heatstroke; female, 58, in tobacco field.[29]

— 1  Whitfield County, Dalton, June 24. Heatstroke; male, 72. NCDC Storm Data, 30/6, p. 32.[30]

— 1  Worth County, location/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Illinois                        (341)

–~341  State. Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

—    42  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of heat-related deaths in Illinois by locality:

—      1  Christian Co., location/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  292  Cook Co. Blanchard addition of 77 reported at the time, 232 additional in later study.[31]

—    77  Cook County Medical Examiner’s Office; noted in CDC, 8-11-1995, 577.

–>232  Chicago. Chicago Public Health Dept., citied in Chicago Tribune. “Heat’s…”[32]

–4  Aug 1-6. UPI. “Heat sizzles Plains.” Key West Citizen, 8-9-1988, 2A.

–1  Aug 4, Palatine, Cook Co. Hyperthermia; female, 73; shuttered home, no AC.[33]

–1  Aug 6. Arteriosclerotic heart disease and heat stroke; female, 81, apt. with no AC.[34]

–1  Aug 3. Heat exhaustion; male day laborer, Barton Chemical Corporation. OSHA.[35]

–1  Aug 8 (body found). Heat stress contributing factor; female, 63, in her apartment.[36]

–7  Aug 13-14. Daily Herald. “Heat-related deaths bring total to 28.” 8-16-1988, p. 4.

–3  Aug 15-16. Chicago Tribune. “Chicago Sweating…Heat Record.” 8-17-1988.[37]

–1  Sep 23 (had been in coma since Aug 7). Heatstroke; male, 67, apt. windows shut.[38]

—  >71  Chicago area. UPI. “Rain cools nation.” Key West Citizen, FL, 8-23-1988, 2A.

—    60     “  Whitman. “Mortality in Chicago Attributed to the July 1995 Heat Wave.” p.1516.[39]

—    55  Chicago, Aug. Whitman. “Mortality in Chicago…Heat Wave.” p.1516.

—    57  Cook Co.  Chicago Tribune. “Record Summer Heat Claims 57^th Victim.” 9-27-1988.

—  2  July

–54  Aug

—  1  Sep

—    49  Chicago, by Aug 17. UPI. “Forecasters promise: killer heat…” 8-17-1988, 2A.

—    40  Chicago, Cook Co., Summer up to ~Aug 19. Death toll from the summer heat.[40]

—    39  Chicago, June 1-Aug 19. Heat-related deaths according to Coroners Office.[41]

—    20  Cook County, location/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–4  Females, 45-54

–1  Female, 65-74

–1  Female, 85+

–3  Male, 25-34

–2  Male, 35-44

–3  Male, 55-64

–2  Male, 65-74

–1  Male, 85+

—      1  Du Page County, Bensenville, Aug 16. Female, 48, in her apartment; AC off.[42]

—      1  Du Page Co., location/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Franklin Co., location/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Jackson Co., location/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  ~10  Kane County. Chicago Tribune. “Deadly Heat’s Toll up in Cook County.” 8-23-1988.[43]

—    16  Lake County. Chicago Tribune. “Deadly Heat’s Toll up in Cook County.” 8-23-1988.

—      1  Logan Co., location/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Madison Co., location/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Montgomery Co., location/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Moultrie Co., location/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Rock Island Co., location/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      9  St. Clair County, location/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–2  Females, 35-44

–1  Female, 55-64

–1  Female, 75-84.

–2  Male, 35-44.

–1  Male, 45-54.

–2  Males, 55-64.

—      1  Scott County, location/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Tazewell Co., location/date not noted. Female, 85+, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Vermilion Co., Danville, ~Aug 18. Heatstroke, male, 85; home with no AC, windows closed.[44]

—      1  Winnebago Co., location/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Indiana                       (39-44)

–39-44  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

—     16  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Indiana heat-related fatalities by locality:

—     1  Blackford Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—     1  Elkhart Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—   21  Lake County. Chicago Tribune. “Deadly Heat’s Toll up in Cook County.” 8-23-1988.[45]

—     1  Jackson Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—     1  LaPorte Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–7-12  Marion County Indianapolis,. Indianapolis Star, IN. 8-23-1988, Sec. C, p. 1, col. 6.[46]

–8  Blanchard tally of Indianapolis breakouts from below.

–6  E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  June 14. Heat exposure; female, 71; wandered away from nursing home.[47]

–2  ~Aug 16. Females, 69 and 82, home with no AC; windows closed, fan off.[48]

–1  Aug 17. Heat-related; female, 77, home with no AC.[49]

–1 ~Aug 17. Male, 61, in his downtown apartment; indoor temperature 95°.[50]

–1 ~Aug 17. Gender and age not noted. No AC in residence.[51]

–1  Aug 19. Heat-exhaustion; female, 80, at home, windows closed, fans not on.[52]

–1  Aug 19 (body found). Heat-exhaustion; male (Earl Kennedy), 63, at home.[53]

—   1  Markle, Huntington Co. Aug 1. Heat-related; female, 1, according to coroner.[54]

—   1  Switzerland Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—   1  Tippecanoe Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—   2  Vanderburgh County, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 85+

–1  Male, 35-44

—   2  Wayne County, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Wayne Co. Fair, July 10. Baby, 5-months, in hot trailer home, body temp. of 107°.[55]

–1  Male, 75-84.

 

Iowa                            (    4)

— 4  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Iowa heat-related fatalities by locality:

— 1  Des Moines County, Burlington, Aug 15. Heatstroke; male, 65-74,[56] at home. NCDC.[57]

— 1  Madison Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Muscatine Co., locality/date not noted. Female 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Page County, locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Kansas                       (10)

–10  Blanchard tally from locality breakouts below.

—  9  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

—  8  By July 18. “State officials said eight deaths have been attributed to the summer heat wave in Kansas.”[58]

Breakout of het-related fatalities by locality:

–1  Dickinson Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Franklin Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Leavenworth Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Phillips Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Sedgwick Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Shawnee Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.[59]

–1  Shawnee Co., Topeka, July 17. Heat stroke (Coroner); Clarence Grandstaff, 76.[60]

–1  Sumner Co., Wellington, July 13. “Medical condition aggravated by the heat.” Donald L Nagel, 24.[61]

–2  Wyandotte Co., locality/date not noted. Males, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Locality not noted, July 15-18. Elderly. Key West Citizen. “Heat blamed…”, 7-19-‘88, 2.[62]

 

Kentucky                   (11)

–11  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–10  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Kentucky heat-related fatalities by location:

–2  Breckinridge Co., locality/date not noted. Males, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Daviess Co., Owensboro, July 14. Heat exhaustion after working in yard; James Payne, 62[63]

–1  Fayette County, Lexington, July 4. Hyperthermia; state highway worker male, 56, in truck.[64]

–1  Fayette County, Lexington, July 11. Excessive heat; Frannie Lee Howard, 64, 120° home.[65]

–1  Hopkins Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–0  Jefferson County. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Jefferson Co., Fairdale, June 28 (body found). Female, 74, mobile home, windows closed, AC off.[66]

–1  Kenton Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Logan County, locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Simpson County, locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Wayne County, locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Louisiana                   (  3)

— 3  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–1  Lafayette Parish, locality/date not noted. Male, 15-19.

–1  Ouachita Parish, locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84.

–1  Ouachita Parish, locality/date not noted. Female, 85+

 

Maryland                   (  4)

— 4  Blanchard tally based on locality breakouts below.

— 3  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Maryland heat-related fatalities by locality:

— 1  Anne Arundel Co. Baltimore-Washington Airport, Aug 17. Male construction worker, 32.[67]

— 1  Baltimore City, locality/date not noted. Female, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Charles Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dorchester Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Massachusetts           ( 40)

–40  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–13  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Massachusetts heat-related fatalities by locality:

—  1  Bristol Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–10  Middlesex County, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–2  Females, 75-84

–3  Females, 85+

–1  Male, 45-54

–1  Male, 65-74

–3  Males, 85+

—  1  Norfolk Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Plymouth Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  0  Suffolk County (Boston). CDC WONDER search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.[68]

–27  Suffolk County, Boston area. Blanchard tally based on breakouts below

–20  Boston area, June 12-18. Lowell Sun, MA. “The heat’s off.” 6-22-1988, p. 1.[69]

—    4  Boston area, June 12. Key West Citizen, FL. “Heat wave…” 6-17-1988, p. 2.[70]

—    2     “ June 15. In homes. Key West Citizen, FL. “Heat wave kills 21.” 6-17-1988, 2.

—>14    “ June 16. In homes. Key West Citizen, FL. “Heat wave kills 21.” 6-17-1988, 2.

–2  East Boston, June 16. Elderly woman and her daughter.[71]

—  2  Boston, Aug 11. CO poisoning in car with air conditioner running.[72]

—  5  Boston, Aug 4-15. Residents of city home for elderly without AC.[73]

 

Michigan                    (~121)

–~121  State. Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

—    26  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Michigan heat-related fatalities by locality:

—      1  Calhoun County, Albion, Aug 12. Heatstroke; young man during football practice. NCDC.[74]

—      1  Gratiot Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Ingham Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Livingston Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Macomb Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      2  Manistee County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9 E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 55-64

–1  Female, 75-84

—      1  Muskegon Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Oakland Co., locality/date not noted. Female, <1 year; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  St. Joseph Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—      1  Van Buren Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–~110  Wayne Co., July 17-Aug 6. (10 heatstrokes and ~100 excessive heat complication deaths.[75]

–5  Wayne/Detroit, Aug 4-5. Four females, one male, all with body temps. over 104°.[76]

–2  Females, 35-44

–1  Female, 45-54

–4  Females, 65-74

–2  Females, 85+

–1  Male, 20-24

–1  Male, 25-34

–1  Male, 35-44

–1  Male, 45-54

–2  Males, 65-74

–1  Male, 85+

 

Minnesota                  (    1)
— 1  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–1  St. Louis County; locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64.

 

Mississippi                 (  10)

–10  CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File search for ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Mississippi heat-related fatalities by locality:

— 1  Alcorn County, locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Coahoma Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  DeSoto Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Holmes Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Jones County, locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Lowndes Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Perry County, locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Rankin Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Tallahatchie Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Webster Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Missouri                     (42-44)

–~44  MO DHSS. Data & Statistical Reports. “Hyperthermia Mortality, Missouri 1980-2013.” [77]

—  42  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

—  22 (June). UPI. “Muggy heat still clings to Midwest.” Greensburg Daily News, IN, 7-16-1988, 1.[78]

Breakout of Missouri heat-related fatalities by locality:

—  1  Adair County, locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Buchanan Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Callaway Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Cape Girardeau Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Greene Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 15-19; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  6  Jackson County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 75-84

–1  Male, 25-34

–1  Male, 45-54

–2  Males, 55-64

–1  Male, 75-84

—  1  Lafayette Co., locality/date not noted. Male 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Montgomery Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  4  New Madrid County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 55-64

–1  Male, 65-74

–1  Male, 75-84

–1  Male, 85+

—  1  Pulaski Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 15-19; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Randolph Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Saline Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–19  St. Louis City, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  June 22. Female, 99, found dead in “sweltering bedroom.” Cites Med Ex.[79]

–1  June 24. Hyperthermia; female, 71, in north St. Louis apartment; AC not on.[80]

–1  June 25. Heatstroke; female, 87; cites health officials and notes high 100° temp.[81]

–1  June 28. Heatstroke; female, 87. AP. “Thunderstorms dampen drought.” 6-29-1988, A15.

–1  Aug 9. Heat exposure; male, 42. UPI. “Baby…” Key West Citizen, 8-11-1988, 2A.

–2  Females, 65-74.[82]

–2  Females, 75-84.

–1  Female, 85+.[83]

–1  Male, 35-44.[84]

–4  Males, 55-64.

–3  Males, 75-84.

–1  Male, 85+.

–1  Fenton, June 22. Male autoworker in “unbearable heat in a paint shop.”[85]

—  3  St. Louis County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 65-74

–1  Female, 75-84

–1  Male, 85+

Other figures, not used in tally:

–18  St. Louis area, by Aug 18. UPI. “Forecasters…killer heat will pass.” 8-17-1988, 2A.

–13  By Aug 15. U PI. “Country is roasting.” Key West Citizen, 8-15-1988, 2A.

—  1  Place not noted, July 15-18. Elderly. Key West Citizen. “Heat blamed…”, 7-19-‘88, 2.[86]

 

Montana                    (  2)

— 2  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Big Horn Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Carbon Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Nebraska                    (  1)

— 1  Douglas Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Nevada                       (  2)

— 1  Clark County, locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Nye County, locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

New Hampshire        (  1)

— 1  Hillsborough Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

New Jersey                (  2)

— 1  Essex County, locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Passaic Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

New Mexico               (  1)

— 1  Bernalillo Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

New York                   (18)

—>300  Blanchard.[87]

—    18  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of New York Heat-Related Fatalities by location:

— 1  Albany Co., locality/date not noted. Female, <1; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.[88]

— 1  Albany Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Chautauqua Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Chautauqua Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dutchess Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dutchess Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dutchess Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Kings Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  NYC, Central Park, July 15. Heat-related; male runner, 24, collapsed during July 14 race.[89]

— 1  NYC, Central Park, Aug 7. Heat-related; male runner, 23, collapsed after Aug 4 race.[90]

— 1  New York Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  New York Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Queens Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Rensselaer Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Rensselaer Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  St. Lawrence Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 5-9; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Westchester Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Westchester Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

North Carolina          ( 15)

–15  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts noted below.

–12  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–11  State. Mirabelli and Richardson. “Heat-Related Fatalities in North Carolina.” Figure 1.

—  1  Beaufort County, by Aug 20 (Dr. Stan Harris, Pitt Memorial Hosp. MEO, cited).[91]

—  1  Bertie County, by Aug 20 (Dr. Stan Harris, Pitt Memorial Hosp. MEO, cited).[92]

—  1  Buncombe Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Granville Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Hyde County, by Aug 20 (Dr. Stan Harris, Pitt Memorial Hosp. MEO, cited).[93]

—  1  Lincoln Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Martin County, locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Onslow County, Richlands area, Aug 19. Female, 62, heatstroke; no AC in her home.[94]

—  1  Onslow Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Pitt County, Greenville, July 16. Male, 65-74, found dead in home with no fans or AC.[95]

—  1  Pitt County, Greenville, Aug 19. Female, 56; hyperthermia “on top of her diabetic state.”[96]

—  1  Pitt County, locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.[97]

—  1  Surry County, locality/date not noted. Male, <1 year; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Wake Co., Raleigh, Aug 13. Heatstroke; football player, 16, after running laps during practice.[98]

—  1  Wake Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Ohio                           (25)

–25  State. Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–23  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

—  1  Ashtabula Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–16  Hamilton County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 55-64.

–2  Females, 65-74.

–7  Females, 75-84.

–1  Male, 25-34.

–1  Male, 35-44.

–1  Male, 65-74.

–3  Males, 75-84

—  1  Lorain Co., Elyria. July 15. Heat is “sweltering attic room…”; Ashley Kasubienski, 2.[99]

—  3  Lucas County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 55-64.

–1  Male, 65-74.

–1  Male, 85+

—  1  Jefferson Co., Mingo Junction, Aug 3. Heat exhaustion; unacclimated railroad track repair worker.[100]

—  1  Paulding Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Richland Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Tuscarawas Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Oklahoma                  (11)

–11  Blanchard tally of Oklahoma heat-related fatalities by locality breakout:

—  9  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Oklahoma heat-related deaths by locality:

–2  Carter County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 55-64.

–1  Male, 65-74.

–1  Comanche Co., Fort Sill, July 15. Heatstroke; soldier, 26, after physical training exercise.[101]

–1  Creek County, locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Garfield Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 20-24; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Pottawatomie Co., Shawnee, June 30. Hyperthermia; male, 23; had walked 2½ miles, 100°.[102]

–1  Stephens Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Tillman County, west of Frederick, Aug 15. Heatstroke; male, 63, working on his farm.[103]

–1  Tulsa County, locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–2  Washita Co., Cordell, June 25. Hyperthermia; man, 80, and wife, 77, [104] on camping trip.[105]

 

Oregon                       (  5)

— 5  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Lane County, locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Malheur Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Marion Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Polk County, locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Polk County, locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Pennsylvania             (19)

— 19  Blanchard tally based on locality breakouts below.

— 17  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

Breakout of Pennsylvania heat-related deaths by locality:

—  2  Beaver Co., localities/dates not noted. ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 65-74.

–1  Female, 75-84.

—  2  Berks County, localities/dates not noted. Females, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Bradford Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Chester Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Dauphin Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Delaware Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Indiana Co., Indiana, July 7. Dehydration/extreme heat exposure; girl, 3½ mo., left in car.[106]

—  1  Luzerne Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  6  Philadelphia, Summer. Philly.com. “Lethal Weather…Heat…Claiming Lives.” 8-15-1991.[107]

–5  Philadelphia County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 25-34.

–1  Female, 75-84.

–1  Female, 85+.

–1  Male, 25-34.

–1  Male, 35-44.

—   1  Westmoreland Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—   2  York County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 75-84.

–1  Male, 55-64.

—>3  Western/central PA, by July 9. Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. “Heat Wave.” 8-9-1988, 1.[108]

 

Rhode Island             (  1)

— 1  Providence Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

South Carolina          (  7)

— 7  State. Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

— 6  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Aiken County, locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Anderson Co., Anderson, Aug 8. Heat exhaustion; male, 75-84.[109] NCDC Storm Data 30/8, 54.

— 1  Beaufort County, locality/date not noted. Male, 1-4; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Darlington Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Dorchester Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Lancaster Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Orangeburg County, Orangeburg, Aug 20. Heat exhaustion, male. NCDC Storm Data.[110]

 

South Dakota             (  3)

— 3  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Hutchinson Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 85+; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Jerauld Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Ziebach Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Tennessee                   (  8)

–8  State  Blanchard tally of locality breakouts below.

–7  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD-9 Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–1  Bradley Co., Cleveland, Aug 18. Heatstroke; female, 85+, in no AC home; temps in 90s.[111]

–4  Davidson County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 65-74

–1  Female, 85+

–1  Male, 55-64

–1  Male, 75-84

–3  Shelby County. Blanchard tally of breakouts below:

–2  Shelby Co., locations/dates not noted. Males, 35-44; E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Shelby Co., Memphis, Aug 17. Heatstroke; female in home, no AC; outdoor temps in 90s.[112]

 

Texas                          (35)

–35  State. Blanchard tally of locality breakout below.

–32  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

—  1  Bastrop Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44; E900/Excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Bell County, locality/date not noted. Male, 20-24; E900/Excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Bexar Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74; E900/Excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Brown Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84; E900/Excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  3  Collin County. Blanchard tally of breakouts below.

–1  Collin Co., McKinney, Aug 15. Heatstroke; female, 86. Storm Data 30/8, 2008, p.56.

–1  Collin Co., location/date not noted. Female, 55-64. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Collin Co., location/date not noted. Female, 75-84. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Cooke County, location/date not noted. Male, 55-64. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  8  Dallas County, localities/dates not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–10  Dallas area. UPI. “Rain cools midwest.” Key West Citizen, 8-8-1988, p. 2A.[113]

–1  Dallas, July 21. Heatstroke; girl, 1, left in car by mother, windows up, 2 hrs.[114]

–1  Grand Prairie, Aug 7. Male, 23. NCDC. Storm Data 30/8, 2008, p. 56.[115]

–1  Irving, Aug 12. Heatstroke; male lawn care worker while operating lawn mower.[116]

–1  Female, 5-9, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 85+, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, <1, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–2  Males, 35-44, localities/dates not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 65-74, locality/date not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Denton County, locality/date not noted. Male, 85+. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Ellis County, locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  2  El Paso County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 45-54.

–1  Male, 45-54.

—  1  Fayette Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 65-74. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Harris Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 75-84. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Jefferson Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  2  Lamar County. Blanchard tally of breakouts below.

–1  Lamar County, Paris, Aug 8. Female, 77. NCDC. Storm Data 30/8, 2008, p. 56.

–1  Lamar Co., location/date not noted. Female, 85+. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  McLennan Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 85+. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Panola County, locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  2  Tarrant County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 25-34.

–1  Male, 65.74.

—  1  Taylor County, locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  3  Travis County, localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Male, 35-44.

–1  Male, 45-54.

–1  Male, 55-64.

—  1  Wichita Co., Wichita Falls, Aug 27. Heart attack, 106° high temp. contributed. Male bicyclist, 51.[117]

—  1  Williamson Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 55-64. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

—  1  Locality not noted., July 16-19. Key West Citizen, FL. “Late night…” 7-20-1988, p. 2.[118]

 

Utah                            (  3)

— 3  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Salt Lake Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 45-54. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER

— 1  Salt Lake Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 35-44. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Washington Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 1-4. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Virginia                      (  9)

— 9  State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

— 1  Alexandria City, date not noted. Male, 65-74. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Bedford Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Chesterfield Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 35-44. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Fauquier Co., locality/date not noted. Female, 75-84. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Fauquier Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 45-54. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Hopewell City, date not noted. Male, 45-54. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Lunenburg Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 65-74. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Roanoke City, date not noted. Female, 85+. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

— 1  Shenandoah Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 85+. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Washington               (  1)

— 1  Grays Harbor Co., locality/date not noted. Male, 25-34. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

 

Wisconsin                  (11)

–11 State. CDC WONDER Compressed Mortality File, ICD Codes E900.0, E900.1, E900.9.

–2  Dane Co., localities/dates not noted. ICD-9, E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 75-84.

–1  Male, 35-44.

–2  Fond du Lac Co. localities/dates not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, <1.

–1  Male, 45-54.

–1  Manitowoc Co., locality/dates not noted. Male 65-74. CDC, E900/excessive heat.

–5  Milwaukee Co., localities/dates not noted. E900/excessive heat. CDC WONDER.

–1  Female, 55-65.

–2  Females, 65-74.

–1  Male, 35-44.

–1  Male, 85+

–1  Racine Co., locality/dates not noted. Male 75-84. CDC, E900/excessive heat.

— 1  Milwaukee, Aug (day not noted). Cardiac arrest brought on by heatstroke; elderly female.[119]

               

Narrative Information (general or multi-state)

 

Lott and Ross (NCDC): “Drought/Heat Wave, Summer 1988. 1988 drought in central and eastern U.S. with very severe losses to agriculture and related industries; estimated $40.0 (61.6) billion damage/costs; estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths (includes heat stress-related).” (Lott and Ross. Tracking and Evaluating U.S. Billion Dollar Weather Disasters, 1980-2005. 2005, p. 4.)

 

NCDC: 1988-06-01 to 1988-08-31. “1988 drought across a large portion of the U.S. with very severe losses to agriculture and related industries. Combined direct and indirect deaths (i.e., excess mortality) due to heat stress estimated at 5,000.” (NCDC. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Table of Events. “U.S. Drought/Heatwave, Summer 1988.”)

 

Newspapers (chronological)

 

June 2: “National Weather Service forecaster Harry Gordon said temperatures today will reach the 90s from Mississippi across Georgia and North Carolina and over south-central and western Texas. He said highs over the desert Southwest will be in the 90s and reach to about 110.” (Associated Press. “Weather….Nation.” Sandusky Register, OH. 6-2-1988, p. A6.)

 

June 7: “A stagnant weather system hovered over north-central states today, turning up the heat from Montana to Wisconsin, while much of the nation was cool or wet….In Wisconsin on Monday [June 6], Green Bay set a record high with 93 degrees. Hot weather also plagued Minnesota, sending air conditioner servicemen into overdrive. ‘It’s incredible. Our guys are working 12 to 14 hours a day, plus Saturdays,’ said Bob Winston of Central Air Conditioning and Heating in Eagan. The high for the nation Monday was 108 degrees at Glendive, Mont….” (Associated Press. “Heat wave hovers.” Xenia Daily Gazette, OH. 6-7-1988, p. 2.)

 

June 9: “….a record heat wave baked the northern High Plains with temperatures exceeding 100 degrees….showers and thunderstorms that began late Wednesday [June 8] and continued today brought some relief from record hot weather in the mid-Mississippi and the lower Ohio valleys.”

(Associated Press. “Record heat bakes Plains.” Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH. 6-9-1988, A3.)

 

June 14: “Showers and thunderstorms converged on the South and Midwest today, bringing drenching rains to the Texas Panhandle, after much of the North sweltered in a record-breaking heat wave….Dry weather prevailed across the rest of the nation. On Monday [June 13] the heat wave scorched sections of Wisconsin. At Green Bay’s Austin Straubel Airport, the temperature hit 94 degrees, surpassing the 1956 record high of 93. In Michigan, Marquette reported a 93-degree high, the sixth day this month a record mark was set there. The old record of 85 degrees was set in 1976. In Alpena, the temperature reached 94, breaking the old record set that year by 2 degrees. The high for the nation Monday was 107 degrees at Laughlin, Nev.” (Associated Press. “Nation’s weather.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 6-14-1988, p. 2.)

 

June 15: “Showers and thunderstorms dampened parts of the Midwest and the West today after a heat wave baking America’s northern half smashed or tied temperature records in 34 cities from Portland, Ore., to Portland, Maine….Tuesday’s hot weather broke temperature records for June 14 in 27 cities and tied them in seven cities in the Northeast, Midwest and West. It was 94 degrees in Pittsburgh, where the old mark of 93 was set in 1885. In Washington, D.C., the 103-year-old record of 94 degrees was tied….” (Associated Press. “Weather….National summary.” Ukiah Daily Journal, CA, 6-15-1988, p. 10.)

 

June 16: “A heat wave baking much of the Northeast and Midwest persisted into its fourth day today, aggravating a severe drought….Temperatures today were again expected to zoom into the 90s from southern New England across eastern Virginia, as far south as the Gulf coast and as far west as Montana….

 

“An estimated 196,000 people on Wednesday [June 15] jammed beaches in the New York City area as the temperature hit 96 degrees, tying a 97-year-old record. It reached 98 degrees in Boston, exceeding by 2 degrees the record set in 1956.

 

“In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, the weather officially became a heat wave, meaning at least three straight days of temperatures at 90 or higher, the National Weather Service said.

 

“The unrelenting heat prompted Rhode Island Public Transit Authority bus drivers to threaten a walkout over broken air conditioners, as highs in Providence on Wednesday reached 97 degrees, one degree below the 1945 record. ‘It’s more than uncomfortable,’ said Edward Rodgers, president of the drivers’ union. ‘It’s a safety issue. What if a driver passed out?…It could be a catastrophe.’….

 

“…the severe heat is being caused by a high-pressure system off the mid-Atlantic coast pumping in hot air from the south central part of the country, National Weather Service meteorologist Mike Wyllie said. ‘Over hundreds and hundreds of miles, the ground is very, very dry,’ said Peter Lamb of the Illinois State Water Survey. ‘So what the sun is doing is heating the ground and the ground is heating the air.’….” (Associated Press. “Heat wave drags on; twisters rake Denver.” The News-Herald, Franklin, PA. 6-16-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 17: “A Canadian cold front and Atlantic seaboard rain took the steam out of an eastern U.S. heat wave blamed for at least 15 deaths, but a relentless drought dogged Midwestern farmers — wilting crops, pushing up commodity prices… The hot, dry spell has scorched crops in the northern Plains, parts of the Corn Belt, Texas, California and the South. Corn leaves are twisting and curling, a sign of stress, in Kentucky. North Dakota had record heat in the last week and soil moisture is the lowest since record-keeping began 30 hears ago. ‘There’s not much relief in sight,’ National Weather Service forecaster Lyle Alexander said. ‘Most of the Midwest is going to remain dry.’

 

“But the heat wave that has scorched the East and Midwest will abate today, he said, as temperatures dip some 10 degrees. He said highs would reach the 70s and 80s — compared to record 90-degree temperatures throughout the week….

 

“In Boston Thursday [June 16], at least 14 people, including an elderly woman and her daughter, were found dead in their homes, the apparent victims of the broiling heat.

 

“In Indianapolis, Clara Rardon, 71, walked away from her nursing home Tuesday and her body was found a day later in the back yard of a nearby home. An autopsy Thursday showed she died from exposure to heat.

 

“While the cold front sweeping in from south Canada carried relief to the eastern half of the nation, parts of the West braced for more sweltering weather today. Alexander said temperatures in the desert Southwest would climb into the 110s, and that a new heat wave would crop up farther north, simmering over eastern Montana and the Dakotas during the weekend….

 

“The Mississippi River fell Thursday to 7 feet below normal, the lowest since 1981, in Memphis, Tenn., snarling barge traffic on the waterway.” (United Press International. “East’s Heatwave Breaks But Midwest Bakes.” Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. 6-17-1988, p. 2.)

 

June 18: “A cold front pushed through the northeastern states Friday [17^th], abruptly ending a five-day, late-spring heat wave that was blamed for at least 21 deaths. But forecasters said there was no relief in sight for drought-plagued farmers in much of the Midwest….” (Associated Press. Weather…Nation.” Sandusky Register, OH. 6-18-1988, A16.)

 

June 20: “Summer officially begins tonight with farmers already enduring a historic heat wave and drought that is threatening economic ruin and baking the agricultural heartland from the Rockies to the Appalachians. Weekend showers in parts of Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin only dampened the dust, offering small comfort to farmers toiling in the bone-dry earth. The drought is the worst since the Dust Bowl days of the Depression in Iowa, the National Weather Service said. The state’s 1-inch rainfall Friday raised the average rainfall only slightly above 1934’s figures, making it the second driest year since records began in 1877….

 

“Summer officially begins at 9:57 p.m. EDT today, but the spring heat wave already has broken records across the Midwest and Plains. ‘Heat stress’ reached the danger level in Wichita, Kan.; and 101 in Valentine, Neb.” (AP. “Weather…Nation.” Sandusky Register, OH. 6-20-1988, A5.)

 

June 21: “A persistent heat wave baked several spots around the country today while thunderstorms struck the central Plains and South after whipping up destructive winds in Arkansas and Alabama. Tuesday’s [June 21] high temperatures in the central United States were the hottest in some spots that have been observed during the month of June. Afternoon highs soared to 109 at Huron, S.D., 108 at Sioux City, Iowa, 103 at Des Moines, Iowa, 102 at Fort Wayne, Ind., and 101 at South Bend, Ind.” (Associated Press. “Heat bakes heartlands.” Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH. 6-22-1988, A3.)

 

June 22: “A fiery heat wave that ushered in summer with triple-digit temperatures and left broiling residents begging for winter gripped the nation again today and baked the drought-stricken farm belt. Overnight temperatures never got below the 80-degree mark in several areas, and the mercury began edging back toward the 90s and 100s as soon as the sun rose.

 

“Heavy rainfall was not in the forecast for the parched Midwest or South. Engineers were dredging the drought-lowered Mississippi River to make the dwindling waterway passable for barge traffic, and restrictions were imposed as of 8 a.m. today on pleasure craft using the locks on the upper half of the Ohio River.

 

“Record high temperatures were set at 67 locations in 23 states as summer began Tuesday, and every state in the 48 adjacent United States reported temperatures above 90, save for northern New England. National Weather Service forecaster Pete Reynolds said most of the nation would swelter today as well. ‘We don’t see much relief in sight for the rest of the week,’ he said. At 2 a.m. EDT today, it was 87 in Omaha, Neb., and Des Moines, Iowa, and 81 in Washington, D.C.

 

“….NWS spokesman Lyle Alexander said the heat wave was centered over the nation’s midsection but was so intense that temperatures in the 90s and 100s were spreading all over the country…..Tuesday’s scorching heat put pressure on utilities. Residents using air conditioners boosted power usage to record levels in Chicago and Indianapolis, the Nebraska town of Lexington began rationing water, and officials in Cleveland said their water pumping system was being pushed to its limit….

 

“It was 112 degrees at Tucson, Ariz., the highest temperature in the city since records began being kept at International Airport in 1941. Sioux Falls, S.D., tied its all-time high of 110. The 108-degree reading at Sioux City, Iowa, was the highest since July 1940. Other records included: 109 in Huron, S.D.’ 108 in Aberdeen, S.D.; and 107 in Concordia, Kan., Grand Island and Lincoln, Neb.” (Daily News, Huntingdon, PA. “Triple-digit temperatures bake drought-stricken belt.” 6-22-1988, p. 2.)

 

June 23: “Crews dredged the drought-shrunken Mississippi River around the clock today to free hundreds of backed-up barges, while triple-digit temperatures prompted autoworkers to walk off the job after a co-worker collapsed and died. Sprinklings of rain Wednesday [22^nd] succeeded only in frustrating farm-belt growers…

 

“In Fenton, Mo., a Chrysler Corp. autoworker died after collapsing Wednesday night in what co-workers said was unbearable heat in a paint ship, as temperatures in the St. Louis area topped 100 degrees. ‘It’s so hot, you can hardly breathe in there. It’s like you’re smothering — like you’re inside an oven,’ said one worker, Bertha Saxton. ‘Your skin is like someone poured baby oil on you.’ An autopsy on Willie Benton, 54, was performed today, said a spokesman for the St. Louis County medical examiner, but results of tests to determine the cause of death might not be available for several days. Shortly after he collapsed, hundreds of paint-shop workers at Chrysler’s No. 1 and 2 plants walked off their jobs because of the heat. The walkout, the second in two days, forced the assembly lines at both plants to shut down, but they were back in operation this morning.” (Associated Press. “Toll from heat wave mounts.” News-Herald, Franklin, PA. 6-23-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 24: “Mental health workers and congressmen say they’ve been besieged by calls from farm families anguished because ‘now God’s against us,’ as 10 governors prepared recommendations for federal action to save drought-stricken farms. A persistent heat wave, meanwhile, continued to exacerbate the worst drought since the 1930s, though parts of the Northeast and Midwest enjoyed cooler weather on Thursday [23^rd] than the record-high temperatures of recent days….

 

“In St. Louis, the medical examiner’s office said that a 99-year-old woman whose body was found in a sweltering bedroom Wednesday had died from heat….

 

“…the National Weather Service said the Plains and Midwest should have continued hot and dry weather for the rest of June.

 

“Governors from North Dakota, South Dakota, Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Montana, Iowa, Ohio and Wisconsin warned Thursday that the drought is seriously affecting food production….” (Associated Press/Bart Ziegler. “Governors meet as crops shrivel.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. 6-24-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 25: “Hundreds of barges began creeping along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers through newly dredged channels, while farmers, clergymen and politicians prayed for relief from the hot, dry weather that has baked fields of crops. A cold front brought scattered rain to parts of the upper Midwest and broke a heat wave in the Northeast, but Friday was the eighth straight day of 100-degree heat over the central part of the nation. Four people have died as a result of the heat.

 

“….Along the Mississippi, dredging crews removed sand that caused a 30-mile-long traffic jam of towboats and 1,100 barges near Memphis, Tenn., but low water levels forced slow-going on the river….Authorities hoped to have the remaining blockage on the Mississippi cleared today above Cairo, Ill., said Robert W. Page, assistant secretary of the Army for civil works in Washington, D.C.

 

“The drought has left the Mississippi so low that its current is too slow to prevent saltwater from creeping upstream from the Gulf of Mexico, threatening drinking water supplies and marshes where oysters and other seafood grow….

 

“Forty-two cities on Friday from Florida to Oregon either tied or broke high temperature records for the date….Reno, Nev., Rapid City, S.D., Huron, S.D., and Casper, Wyo., tied or broke high temperature records for June, while Valentine, Neb., hit 110 degrees for its high record on any date.

 

“In St. Louis, the medical examiner’s office said three elderly women had died of hyperthermia. In Georgia, a woman died of a heart attack brought on by heat stroke while working in a tobacco field, Thomas County Coroner Sam Brown said Friday.

 

“Missouri’s Department of Social Services said $400,000 would be made available to lend low-income households fans and air conditioners and help pay their electric bills.

 

“Scattered rain Friday brought some relief to parts of the upper Midwest before the hot air returned to bake the soil….

 

“Hot wind fanned forest fires in Montana, Idaho and Wyoming, and at least seven North Dakota counties have banned fireworks on July 4 because of the fire danger. Wisconsin banned outdoor smoking, open fires and fireworks in all state parks, forests and other state land Friday….”

(Associated Press/Larry Ryckman. “Heat holds on in central states.” Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA. 6-25-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 26: “Rain fell Saturday [25^th] in Texas, the Northeast and West Coast, but there was no relief from the drought turning the Farm Belt to dust. Temperatures soared over 100 in parts of the Midwest and South, causing some deaths among the elderly. ‘There is no major relief in sight,’ National Weather Service official Dan McCarthy said of the dry weather. The NWS reported records broken in more than 30 cities in 13 states Saturday. The thermometer hit 97 in Dayton, Ohio, before 12:3- p.m. EDT, breaking the old record of 96 set in 1966. Saturday afternoon, Toledo registered 104 and Cleveland and Chicago both hit 103.

 

“A St. Louis woman who had air conditioning in her home but did not have it turned on became the fourth victim of the heat wave that has gripped Missouri, authorities said Saturday. Margaret Grinston, 71, was found dead Friday [24^th] of hyperthermia in her north St. Louis apartment, city Health Commissioner Diane Sharma said. Three elderly people died earlier in the heat wave. ‘The problem with older people is they don’t recognize they are succumbing to the heat,’ Sharma said. ‘They simply fall asleep and fall into a coma and die.’

 

“In Georgia, a 68-year-old Gainesville woman died Saturday from apparent heat stroke while doing yard work. Temperatures reached the mid-90s. Earlier in the week, a 58-year-old woman died from a heat stroke while working in a tobacco field in southern Georgia’s Thomas County.

 

“In Chicago, city officials said a heat-expanded steel drawbridge got stuck in an upright position over the Chicago River, causing ‘mass chaos’ by backing up highway traffic for miles.” (Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 6-26-1988, A6.)

 

June 29: “Thunderstorms and cooler weather soothed parts of the drought-parched central United States early today [June 29], after setting at least one record for rainfall. Madison, Wis., received 1.67 inches of rain on Tuesday, breaking a 60-year-old mark of 1.62 inches.

 

“Despite a break in the 100-degree temperatures, health officials in St. Louis reported another death Tuesday from Saturday’s [25^th] torrid heat. An 87-year-old woman died of heat stroke, bringing to nine the number of weather-related deaths there in a recent heat wave….

 

“The heat wave continued to break, with temperatures dropping to the 40s and 50s in the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes region and the northeastern states early today. Highs were in the 80s in parts of Kansas, Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska….High temperatures were expected in the 60s from the upper Great Lakes through the upper Ohio Valley into New England; in the 70s from the upper Mississippi Valley into the lower Ohio Valley.” (Associated Press. “Thunderstorms dampen drought.” The Telegraph, Alton, IL. 6-29-1988, A-15.)

 

June 30: “Washington (AP) — The hot, dry weather plaguing America is likely to shift East and South in the next month, and forecasters offer little hope that the widespread drought will be broken. The 90-day outlook issued by the National Weather Service on Wednesday [June 29] does indicate a chance of more rain than normal in some western sections of the Great Plains by the end of September. But in the nearer term, the watchwords were for more of the same weather that has been parching fields and reservoirs, stalling river traffic and baking crops and livestock.

 

“The 6- to 10-day outlook is ‘very close to holding stationary the pattern of the last few weeks,’ Donald L. Gilman, head of the Long Range Predictions Group at the National Weather Service, said at a news conference. And the 30-day predictions shows ‘only subtle changes,’ Gilman added. ‘Unfortunately, reliable predictions of the drought’s end, its geographic spread, or changes in severity, cannot be made today,’ the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration cautioned in an accompanying statement. The agency noted that while the current drought is severe, it is not yet comparable to the damaging dry spells of the 1950s and 1930s. This dry period is ‘neither unprecedented nor unexpected from a climatological perspective,’ the agency said. Nonetheless, Dr. Michael Hudlow, director of hydrology for the weather service, said: ‘It’s likely to get worse before it gets better.’

 

“The river level at Memphis, Tenn., where Mississippi barge traffic is already stalled, could drop another foot in the next 10 days, he warned.

 

“High-altitude jet stream winds that normally sweep across the northern tier of states have split, to the north and south, Gilman said, holding the drought conditions in place between them.

 

“Gilman’s 6- to 10-day outlook calls for much above normal temperatures in Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Wisconsin and Iowa. In addition, above normal readings are expected in much of the rest of the nation except the Columbia River valley, West Texas and along the Atlantic Coast from North Carolina through Georgia and northern Florida….

 

“In July, above normal heat is expected throughout most of the northern Plains and upper Midwest, Gilman said, while the outlook for rain is ‘very uncertain.’ “The greatest chance of hot weather is in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee, Gilman said. He gave that region a 65 percent chance of being hotter than normal for July, an unusually high ranking for a summer forecast. Typically, the 30-day outlooks are considered only 55 percent likely in summer. In addition, July has a chance of warmer than normal weather from Pennsylvania west through the Great Lakes states to Montana, south to Oklahoma and Arkansas and east to the Appalachian Mountains. The rest of the country should expect near normal readings in July except the Puget Sound region, where it is expected to be cooler than normal….

 

“Finally, he issued a long-range 90-day forecast for July, August and September. That outlook anticipates above normal temperatures along the Pacific Coast, in southern Arizona, Louisiana, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, the Carolinas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Florida….” (Associated Press. “No end in sight for drought.” The Telegraph, Nashua, NH. 6-30-1988, p. 29.)

 

July 6: “Washington (AP) — The stifling heat baking much of America threatens more than crops, weather experts warn. Heat kills people too. The 1980 heat wave claimed the lives of an estimated 1,265 Americans, according to an analysis prepared for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Many of the victims were elderly and poor, living in homes or apartments that lacked air conditioning.

 

“Hot weather places greater stress on the heart and blood vessels, warns the Department of Health and Human Services. Thus, when temperatures rise, so do the number of heart attacks and strokes.

 

“And high humidity just makes it worse, by interfering with the body’s ability to cool itself. The human body is cooled by evaporation of sweat and by circulating blood closer to the skin to allow the heat to dissipate. The problem is that when the air temperature gets close to the body’s 98.6 degree Fahrenheit normal, heat doesn’t dissipate outward as readily. Sweating does nothing to cool the body unless the moisture is removed by evaporation into the air, and humid air isn’t as willing to accept that liquid as is dry air. As the body tries to cope with increasing heat it begins pumping a torrent of blood through the dilated circulatory system, while the sweat glands pour out liquid, including dissolved chemicals that the body may need. What follows can be a heat-related illness when the body can no longer shed enough heat to keep its temperature near normal levels, or when it can not cope with loss of liquid and chemicals. These illnesses include heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heatstroke.

 

“Heat cramps are painful spasms, often occurring in the muscles of the legs and abdomen. NOAA experts in weather and health recommend firm pressure on the cramping muscle followed by gentle massage. Give the victim water to drink.

 

“Heat exhaustion, they point out is more serious. Symptoms include heavy sweating, weakness; cold, pale, clammy skin. The victim may faint or vomit. Treatment includes getting the victim out of the sun to a place where they can lied down and loosen their clothing. Get them to a fan or air conditioned area if possible, and apply cool, wet cloths. Give water to drink. If vomiting continues, seek medical attention.

 

“The most dangerous condition is heat stroke, also known as sunstroke. In this case the body temperature can rise to dangerous levels, skin is hot and dry, pulse rapid and the victim may become unconscious. Heat stroke is a severe emergency; summon medical assistance or get the victim to a hospital, NOAA warns. Delay can be fatal. While waiting for help, get the victim to a cooler environment, use fans or air conditioner and cool sponging, but do not give fluids, the agency says….” (Associated Press. “Tips for coping with the heat wave.” Register-Herald, Beckley, WV, 7-6-1988, 2B.)

 

July 7: “….The western and eastern thirds of the country will once again be mostly sunny and hot. Mid 90s to near 100 will be the rule for the eastern third of the country, as well as the South and Southwest regions and up into the western Rockies and Cascades. The northern and central Plains will cool down to the mid 80s behind the cold front moving through that area….” (Accu-Weather. “U.S. Forecast.” Altoona Mirror, PA. 7-7-1988, p. 13.)

 

July 8: “Another day of 100-degree heat scorched the eastern half of the country, combining with the drought to force water conservation by millions of people, and Chicago issued a ‘yellow alert’ to warn against its worst smog in a decade. There was no relief in sight from the weeklong heat wave that has shattered temperature records that stood for more than a century. Record highs were reached Thursday in 36 cities in 10 states from the Midwest to the Middle Atlantic coast….

 

“This week’s heat only adds to the woes of the blistered Farm Belt during the critical ‘tasseling stage’ for corn when the plant requires more moisture to reproduce. ‘The drought is worsening and we’re facing imminent disaster,’ Illinois Agriculture Director Larry Werries declared. In Washington, the governors of seven Midwestern states won assurances from Congressional leaders Thursday that drought-relief bills will be filed early next week in an attempt to send legislation to President Reagan y mid-August. ‘The dimensions of this drought are astronomical and very far-reaching,’ North Dakota Gov. George Sinner said. ‘Our wheat crop is about two-thirds gone. It’s just not there. We can’t afford to lose any more of our farmers. With them go farm community businesses.’ “The drought now has damaged crops in 1,880 counties in 37 states from California to Vermont and drained the nation’s rivers to historic lows. Wildfires have blackened 401,700 acres in the tinder-dry West and Alaska, and at least 179 firefighters have been injured.

 

“The state of Pennsylvania joined Cleveland, Minneapolis, Baltimore and suburban Detroit in taking steps to conserve water Thursday [July 7]. Baltimore and two nearby counties banned all outside water use, warning violators that their water could be turned off. Lawn sprinkling was banned in Minneapolis, in 11 Detroit suburbs and in Cleveland and  70 surrounding communities. Pennsylvania asked residents to voluntarily cut water use by 5 percent and banned campfires in state parks and forests. ‘If we no not receive bountiful rainfall within the next week, we’ll have a crisis on our hands,’ state Agriculture Secretary Boyd Wolff said.

 

“Smog built to dangerous levels in Washington, D.C., Detroit and Chicago, where the state Environmental Protection Agency issued a ‘yellow alert’ for the first time in 10 years. EPA SPOKESMAN William Flowers said Chicagoans were wheezing and coughing in ‘very unhealthy levels of ozone,’ and the agency urged all residents to ‘reduce any unnecessary use of automobiles.’ Washington, D.C., declared an air quality emergency for the second straight day, and Detroit considered asking factories to cut operations to reduce emissions of hydrocarbons, a prime ingredient of ozone pollution.

 

“The U.S. Geological Survey reported Thursday that water flow on 33 of the nation’s largest rivers and streams reached record lows in June. The Mississippi River is so shallow at its mouth that a wedge of saltwater has reached New Orleans from the Gulf of Mexico, prompting Gov. Buddy Roemer to declare a four-parish state of emergency because of the threat to drinking water. Roemer said it could cost up to $53 million to ensure adequate freshwater supplies for Plaquemine, Saint Bernard, Orleans and Jefferson parishes. Already, communities in lower Plaquemine Parish have been forced to import fresh water. The Army Corps of Engineers is trying to build an underwater dike about 30 feet high across the riverbed to block the saltwater’s advance.

 

“New Yorkers dealt with another river’s troubles. The carcasses of up to 100,000 fish, apparently killed by a lack of oxygen in the overheated Hutchinson River, have washed ashore. The stench forced residents of the Bronx to shut their windows despite the heat.

 

“In Columbus, Ohio, a radio station tried to wish away the heat wave a the temperature rose to 100 degrees, tying a 107-year-old mark. WTVN played Christmas songs, starting with Bing Crosby’s White Christmas,’ then ‘Let It Snow, Let It Snow, Let It Snow.’” (Daily Herald, Tyrone, PA. “Heat Wave Scorches East.” 7-8-1988, pp. 1 and 3.)

 

July 9: “Residents of parts of the Midwest were warned Friday [July 8] of unhealthy air pollution trapped by the stifling heat wave, a Canadian official said that country would block a proposal to divert water from the Great Lakes down the Illinois River to the Mississippi, and Iowa’s governor declared a statewide disaster because of the drought.

 

“A shallow chokepoint in the shallow lower Mississippi was dredged out near Natchez, Miss., to let barge traffic move again. And because the river is carrying less sewage and industrial pollution, Louisiana has reopened thousands of acres of oyster beds that were closed for 20 years.

 

“The White House said President Reagan will travel Thursday to the Midwest to talk to farmers, and Iowa Gov. Terry Branstad said he will have lunch next week with the president and push for drought-relief measures.

 

“Record temperatures were reported Friday in at least 20 cities across the Midwest and into Tennessee and upstate New York. Elkins, W.Va., normally a cool spot in the Appalachians, hit a record 93 degrees. The National Weather Service said it was the 10^th record high or low temperature tied or broken at Elkins since June 1.

 

Louisville, Ky., tied its record of 102 degrees; Huntington, W.Va., hit a record 101 and records of 100 were listed at Alpena, Mich., and Harrisburg, Pa. Nashville tied a record of 101 that has been on the books since 1874.

 

“At least 36 deaths have been blamed on hot weather since June 1, 22 of them in Missouri. Others were in Kansas, Georgia, Illinois and Kentucky….

 

“Three areas of Illinois were advised Friday that heat-related air pollution was at unhealthful levels for the second straight day, said Bob Swinford, supervisor of air quality analysis for the state Environmental Protection Agency. In Cook County, which includes Chicago, a ‘yellow alert’ advising people with lung or heart problems to stay inside was issued Thursday and prevailed into Friday in certain areas after ozone reached 200 parts per billion, 75 ppb above the federal standard. The alert also signals the EPA to ask industries to voluntarily reduce production that results in emissions contributing to the pollution Swinford said.

 

“Heavily industrialized southeastern Michigan, including Detroit, also remained under an air stagnation advisory Friday, but conditions had improved slightly from earlier in the week. Air quality in Kentucky’s five major urban areas — Ashland, Lexington, Louisville, northern Kentucky and Paducah — slipped into the ‘unhealthful’ category Friday because of ozone levels, the Department of Environmental Protection said.” (Associated Press. “Pollution hand-in-hand with heat.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-9-1988, p. 2.)

 

July 10: “Washington (AP)–The heat wave in much of the country is pushing up concentrations of ozone, a major air pollutant, over big cities to levels sometimes not seen for a decade. ‘We are having an absolutely horrendous summer,’ said Bill Becker, executive director of the State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators Association, on Friday [July 8]. Ozone prompted air pollution advisories in Chicago every day last week and caused standards to be violated in Vermont for the first time in recent memory. Several states and cities warned people with lung problems to curtail activities and stay inside during the afternoon. New York had a statewide advisory on Friday.

 

“The new peaks come at a time when the Environmental Protection Agency is considering whether new ozone standards are needed because of unexpected lung damage under certain conditions. They also coincide with warning from some scientists that the long-predicted ‘greenhouse effect’ warming of the Earth has begun, and hot, dry ozone-prone summers are going to become more frequent.

 

“James Hansen, a climatologist at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, says hot summers — with ‘hot’ defined as the warmest one-third of all summers in 1951-1980 — could occur half the time in the mid-1990s.

 

“Heat speeds up ozone formation. Temperature inversions may trap ozone near the ground and keep it from dispersing. Though in the stratosphere ozone protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun, at ground level EPA has defined it as unhealthy in concentrations over 0.12 parts per million for an hour. Ozone constricts the air passages in the lung. It is the chemical in smog that makes a person’s chest feel tight.

 

“Three things make ozone: sunlight, oxides of nitrogen from burning fossil fuels and compounds lie those fond in unburned gasoline vapor, which react with the nitrogen oxides. Concentrations peak in the afternoon and decline at night.

 

“The chief weapon for fighting ozone is reduction of gasoline vapors through controls on cars. Some areas require auto inspections and vapor recovery at service stations. The junking of older, dirtier cars has brought cleaner air to many cities, but EPA lists 68 cities and rural areas as violating ozone standards.” (Associated Press. “Heat wave boosts ozone levels.” Jacksonville Journal Courier, IL. 7-10-1988, p. 1.)

 

July 13: “During a heat wave, the elderly may be up to 13 times more likely to suffer severe or fatal heat-related illnesses than the rest of the population, according to the president of the Pennsylvania Medical Society (PMS). ‘Research shows that elderly people are at a doubled disadvantage during a heat wave,’ said Donald E. Harrop, MD. ‘Age dulls their sensitivity to thirst and slows the body’s cooling mechanism. Also, their need for medication often mixes badly with hot weather.’ The general practitioner from Phoenixville said many senior citizens are careful to stay out of the summer sun, but many closet themselves in houses that are hot and poorly ventilated which can bring on a heat-related illness.

 

“Heat exhaustion, for example, is caused by loss of body water and salt and often produces elevated temperatures, profuse sweating, nausea and a light-headed feeling. It can be easily treated by rest in a cool place, coupled with drinking fluids, such as water and fruit juice.

 

“If untreated, heat exhaustion can progress to heat stroke which is life threatening, Dr. Harrop said. Symptoms include extremely high body temperatures, discomfort, mental confusion, and possibly convulsions. Heat stroke can lead to other serious complications, such as heart or kidney failure or a stroke. ‘Heat stroke requires immediate cooling treatment. Immerse the person in a cold bath, apply moist towels or ice packs, ventilate the house, and call your doctor,’ Dr. Harrop advised.

 

“The PMS president offered the following tips for beating the heat:

 

Avoid overexertion and keep physical work to a minimum. Try to rest as much as possible;

 

Wear light-colored cotton clothing.

 

Use an umbrella or wear a hat when in the sun;

 

Eat light meals and foods rich in carbohydrates for energy;

 

Drink plenty of water and juices, but not coffee or tea which promote urine output, and alcohol which confounds the body’s cooling system.

 

Bathe or shower frequently in cool water.

 

Always use air conditioners and fans when possible.

 

“‘Some senior citizens consider air-conditioning too much of a luxury to use. But in a heat wave such as this, it’s not a luxury. It’s a necessity,’ Dr. Harrop stressed.” (Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. “Elderly At Risk In Heat Wave.” 7-13-1988, p. 7.)

 

July 15: “‘High pressure over the southeastern states will continue to pump hot and very humid air into the region,’ said forecaster Joseph Ammerman [National Weather Service]. ‘With temperatures today and Saturday forecast to approach the 100-degree mark over the west along with relative humidities from 45 to 55 percent, the heat index could rise to 115 degrees Over the east, the heat index is forecast to rise to between 100 and 105 degrees.’ Ammerman said there is no relief in sight from the heat wave as the extended forecast calls for high temperatures to rise well into the 90s through Tuesday.” (Times-Tribune, Corbin, KY. “Returning to baking temps.” 7-15-1988, p. 2.)

 

July 16: “A muggy heat wave that has sent temperatures and humidity levels soaring clung over much of the United States today, while two cities slammed by a thunderstorm in the drought-stricken Farm Belt cleaned up in the wake of a tornado and fierce winds. Rain came violently in the Plains, hurling a twister and 90-mph winds through Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha, Neb., just before rush hour Friday. The thunderstorm injured at least 31 people….

 

“Hot weather was expected to continue through the weekend across much of the nation, with little or no rain in the forecast.

 

“Temperatures rose over the 100-degree mark Friday [July 15] in a wide area from Kentucky and Ohio through Illinois, Tennessee, Kansas, Missouri and Nebraska to Minnesota, Oklahoma and Arkansas. Missouri Gov. John Ashcroft issued a statewide heat alert, noting that 22 people died in the state in late June during a similar hot spell. ‘Unless we act now to gear up public and private efforts to care for those without shelter from the stifling heat, the potential for human loss over the weekend is staggering,’ Ashcroft said.

 

“Temperatures during the afternoon rose to a record 103 at Rockford, Ill., and 102 at Chicago. In Ohio, which was declared a drought disaster area, record high temperatures included 101 at Dayton, 99 in Columbus and 94 at Mansfield.

 

“Heat at the nation’s capital broke a 108-year-old record with a 100-degree reading at National Airport outside Washington. Also, the flow of the Potomac River was 39 percent below normal during the first half of July and freshwater flow into the Chesapeake Bay was 57 percent below normal, so far the third-lowest July flow, the U.S. Geological Survey said.

 

“Forecasters throughout the Midwest and Great Plains warned of heat index levels approaching the 115-degree level. A heat index — which measures the effects of heat and humidity on the body’s ability to cool itself — of 105 degrees is considered dangerous to both humans and livestock.

 

“The worst drought to hit the United States since the Dust Bowl days of the Great Depression was beginning to take its toll on the nation’s timber industry, officials said Friday. Fires were the main concern in the Midwest, but bugs provided the West with yet another worry. The U.S. Forest Service barred the use after noon each day of all machinery with internal combustion engines, including chain saws and bulldozers, from the 879,600-acre Hiawatha National Forest in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. Officials said they feared sparks from chain saws and other equipment would ignite fires in the forest….Forest Service officials have said the dry weather over the last three years, combine with wildfires, created ideal breeding conditions for many species of timber-feeding beetles. The Forest Service in Idaho said forest fires and the drought have stressed many trees beyond their capacity to fend off attacking pests. A spokesman said hundreds of thousands of trees in the southern part of the state were being attacked by ‘all kinds of beetles.’” (United Press International. “Muggy heat still clings to Midwest.” Greensburg Daily News, IN. 7-16-1988, p. 1.)

 

July 16: “The East baked in a heat wave Saturday [July 16] that warped train rails between Washington and Philadelphia and sent New Yorkers to the beaches in droves. Residents of Omaha and Council Bluffs, Iowa cleaned up damage from a tornado….

 

“The eastern heat wave sent the temperature soaring to a record 102 at Dulles Airport outside Washington D.C., and a record 103 n Baltimore. Other records were set in Muskegon, Mich., (94) and South Bend, Ind., (96), while records were tied in Philadelphia (100), Akron, Ohio, (100) and Huntington, W.Va., (99)….

 

“Amtrak train service between Washington and Philadelphia was delayed by about 30 minutes Saturday because of high temperatures that expanded the rails. Amtrak employee Jim Wingood in Philadelphia said the cars were slowed from 125 mph to 80 mph.

 

“New Yorkers streamed to area beaches to escape temperatures in the 90s, despite several closures last week forced by a sewage spill and medical debris, including syringes and vials of blood, that washed ashore.

 

“Two deaths in Kentucky this week were linked to the summer’s heat wave as temperatures climbed near 100 degrees Saturday. James Payne, 62, collapsed from heat exhaustion at his Owensboro home Thursday after working in his yard. Frannie Lee Howard, 64, was found last Sunday at her Lexington home, where the windows were shut and the temperature was 120 degrees inside….” (Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 7-17-1988, A-6.)

 

July 16-18: “Cool summer rain gave long-suffering farmers reason to hope for an end to the drought in parts of the  Midwest, while a heat wave blamed for at least eight deaths tormented much of the rest of the country…Since the weekend [July 16-17], eight deaths have been blamed on the heat — three in Washington, D.C., two in Michigan and one each in Virginia, Missouri and Kansas. Most of the victims were elderly, their bodies found in shuttered homes without air conditioning or fans.

 

“Temperatures soared to a record 93 degrees in Youngstown, Ohio, Monday [July 18] and 89 in Beckley, W.Va., with steamy highs of 95 in Baltimore and 94 in Washington, D.C. In Detroit, where temperatures were in the mid-80s, morning rush-hour traffic was disrupted for thousands of commuters when bus drivers walked off the job for about four hours to protest broken air conditioners. ‘The buses are like ovens,’ said Ralph Mitchell, president of Division 26 of the Amalgamated Transit Union. The strike ended after officials pledged to devise a new system for repairing air conditioners, Mitchell said.” (United Press International. “Heat blamed in deaths of eight senior citizens.” Key West Citizen, FL, 7-19-1988, p. 2.)

 

July 18: “….On the West Coast, blistering heat that drove temperatures to record levels over interior sections of California Monday [July 18] pushed into parts of Oregon and Washington. In Seattle the temperature hit a record 95 degrees for the date, while it rose to 116 in Redding, Calif., 115 in Red Bluff, Calif., and 109 in Medford, Ore. The heat wave in California’s Central Valley pushed the use of electricity in Northern California to an all-time high Monday because of extensive use of air conditioning, a spokesman for the Pacific Gas and Electric Co. said.

 

“Forecaster Hugh Crowther said high temperatures would rise into the 90s west of the Rockies and creep above 100 in the desert Southwest, interior California, southern Oregon and southwestern Idaho.

 

“At least 14 deaths have been blamed on the heat in pockets across the nation since Saturday — six in Washington, D.C., two in Michigan, two in Missouri and one each in Virginia, Illinois, Texas and Kansas….The latest heat death reports were in the nation’s capital, where Public Health Commissioner Reed Tuckson said two 77-year-old women died, one Sunday and the other Monday. D.C. General Hospital officials said the heat Monday also killed an unidentified man in his 30s or 40s.” (United Press International. “Late night temperatures remaining high in West.” Key West Citizen, FL. 7-20-1988, p. 2.)

 

Aug 15: “A heat wave that set records from Arizona to the Atlantic was blamed for a riot that injured eight at an un-airconditioned Massachusetts prison and prompted utility officials in New England to predict blackouts in six states.

 

“In Boston, the temperature jumped from 78 to 92 degrees in 10 minutes. Sunday [Aug 14] was the fifth consecutive day of record heat for Beckley, W.V., and in Arizona where Phoenix had the nation’s high at 113 degrees, it was still 89 degrees after midnight.

 

“Milwaukee exceeded 90 degrees for the 34^th day this year, breaking the 33-day record of 1955. Madison recorded 95 degrees, a record high for the date in Wisconsin’s capital city.

 

“Newark tied a 1944 record of 98 degrees Sunday, the 40^th day of 90-degree temperatures this summer. That equals the record for the most 90-degree days in one year, according to the National Weather Service.

 

“In New York City where the high was 97 degrees, Sunday was the 31^st day this summer that temperatures have peaked above 90. As New Yorkers returned from weekend activities and cranked up the air conditioning, power demand hit a record for a Sunday, according to Consolidated Edison….” (Associated Press. “Heat wave setting records.” Laurel Leader-Call, MS, 8-15-1988, p. 1.)

 

Aug 16, AP: “Football coaches cut back on training, utilities from Maine to Virginia cut back on power, and the homeless sought shelter in air-conditioned buildings as record high temperatures were set in 20 states and the District of Columbia….

 

“In New York City, Monday’s record 97 degrees caused Consolidated Edison to impose a brownout on at least 250,000 tenants, leaving them without air conditioning and no way out – elevators to their high-rise homes were shut down. At least 10,000 other tenants suffered a blackout, scores of businesses without power had to close and two hospitals voluntarily switched to backup power.

 

“All 48 contiguous states had temperatures of 87 degrees or higher and 100-degree temperatures were registered in 22 states and the District of Columbia, the National Weather Service said. Today’s forecast called for much of the same, with temperatures above normal from central New England across Georgia and west through the Plains.

 

“In Pierre, S.D., where the nation’s record high temperature was a staggering 114 degrees Monday, a big concern was for livestock. With the heat expected to continue today, the weather service’s livestock safety index was predicted to reach the emergency category across most of the state through this evening….

 

“In New Hampshire, where air-conditioners have been sold out across the state for a month, ice skating spelled relief. Concord’s Recreation and Parks Department is giving residents a chance to get back into the cold tonight by offering free ice skating.

 

“The Salvation Army in Atlantic City, N.J., which runs an overnight shelter for the homeless, said they have started to allow people to stay during daytime hours because of the heat….

 

“At least 10 elderly residents with heat-related complaints had to be carried down from New York City high-rises by police and paramedics, but most of the tenants seemed to have concerns for food spoiling in rapidly defrosting refrigerators. One woman in a posh East-Side building said she’d hiked up and down 23 flights of stairs twice….

 

“At Cyclone Stadium in Ames [Iowa] the temperature on the stadium’s artificial surface soared to 130 degrees Monday.” (Associated Press (Theasa Tuohy). “Heat wave. Across the nation, temperatures are mighty high.” Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-16-1988, p. 2A.)

 

Aug 17, AP/Schmid: “Washington – Rising temperatures across America are overwhelming vulnerable people and could kill thousands, according to an authority on health and the environment. ‘This will probably emerge as one of the largest natural disasters of this century…and it will have just whispered its way by,’ said W. Moulton Avery, executive director of the Center for Environmental Physiology in Washington. By ones and twos, the poor and elderly are succumbing to the heat, which overtaxes their bodies, he said. But most of these tragedies will pass with little notice, being recorded in government statistics as heart attacks or strokes, rather than heat-related fatalities.

 

“In the end, Avery warned Tuesday [Aug 16] this summer’s stifling temperatures threaten to exact a high death toll than the 1980 heat wave that killed an estimated 15,000 Americans. ‘If I had in my hand right now the number of people that have died this summer (from heat) it would be front-page news all over the country, but I don’t have that number.’ Said Avery, whose non-profit center researches the effects of heat and cold on humans for government agencies and other clients.

 

“He has argued for a reporting system to record heat deaths, but statisticians must depend on comparing deaths during heat wave years with ‘normal’ years and calculating the excess fatalities. That was the system used to determine the 15,000 extra deaths in 1980. ‘What we’re living through now is the same thing we were living through in 1980,’ and is worse than many other hot summers, he said….” (Schmid, Randolph E. (Assoc. Press). “Killer heat of summer 1988 may be largest disaster this century.” Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-17-1988, p. 3A.)

 

Aug 17, LA Times: “Chicago — A killer heat wave continued to fry the Midwest on Tuesday with languid, enervating 100-degree temperatures that one environmental expert said may claim thousands of victims by the end of summer. ‘Certainly more than 10,000 deaths,’ was the prediction of W. Moulton Avery, executive director of the Washington-based Center for Environmental Physiology and an expert on heat-related ailments. ‘And it wouldn’t surprise me if it exceeded the number of deaths in 1980.’ The National Center for Health Statistics reported 15,000 heat-related deaths that year when persistent hot weather smothered much of the Midwest and Northeast.

 

“In metropolitan Chicago alone, the heat has been blamed for two deaths a day–every day–so far this month.

 

“‘The highest mortality is among people who have underlying diseases like cardiac patients, those with emphysema or alcoholics,’ said Dr. Cai Glushak, a University of Chicago hospital emergency room physician. Also at risk are infants and the elderly….

 

“‘Our call volume probably reached record levels in the last three or four days,’ said Suzanne Halpin, acting vice president of New York City’s Emergency Medical Services.

 

“Avery said the death rate from heat-related maladies this summer is likely to be higher than it was during 1980 because the nation’s elderly population is larger now and because this summer’s oppressive weather has been especially severe in urban areas with their big concentrations of population. Avery also said that this summer’s heat promises to last longer and cover a bigger area of the country than the hot weather in 1980. ‘We have a national disaster in progress that is of equal or greater magnitude than 1980,’ he said.

 

“Tuesday’s temperature in downtown Chicago steamed to a stifling 104 degrees. The heat index–a combination of how the heat and humidity feel on the skin, the summer equivalent of winter’s wind-chill factor–reached 111 degrees. In St. Louis the temperature hit 102 degrees and the heat index edged near 115 degrees. It was 103 degrees in Des Moines, and 102 in Madison, Wis., Indianapolis and Paducah, Ky., where the heat index hit 115 degrees.

 

“One measure of the heat this summer is cumulative. In Chicago, for example, if you add all the days when the temperature hit 90 degrees or more, they would total 45–more than six weeks–since late May. Seven of those days were 100 degrees or warmer–more days over the century mark than have ever been recorded in one summer in the Windy City. At noon Tuesday in Chicago it was so hot–and so difficult to breath–that downtown workers apparently stayed in air-conditioned offices or crowded into cool department stores. Popular restaurants had tables available. Sidewalks on hazy Michigan Avenue, the city’s main drag, were about as deserted as they are on blustery winter days when the temperature is 10 degrees below zero–114 degrees colder than it was Tuesday. But Marshall Field, the city’s biggest department store, reported noon-time crowds of shoppers.

 

“Tourists also were staying off the streets of Washington, D.C, where the temperature moderated Tuesday to 93 degrees–10 degrees cooler than it was there on Monday….

 

“The heat, which already has combined with dry weather to devastate the nation’s agricultural economy this year, is now inflicting damage on the Midwest’s manufacturing economy. Steel plants and auto factories are reporting lower production this week because of the weather….

 

“In South Dakota, ranchers were warned not to transport their livestock to slaughter or to feed lots until temperatures moderated. And at the National Zoo in the nation’s capital, sprinklers were installed in several animal pens to give the wild animals relief from the heat….” (Los Angeles Times. “Health Expert Says 10,000 Could Perish in Heat Wave.” 8-17-1988.)

 

Narrative Information (by State)

 

Arizona

 

Winslow Mail, July 1: “….Tucson and Chicago both suffered through several record breaking days last week. Tucson was one of 64 cities nationwide to establish a new record high temperature on June 22 when the thermometer topped out at an all-time record high of 114 in the Old Pueblo. The previous record high was 112, set just the day before. The high reading on Thursday, June 23, 113, also exceeded the former all-time high reading of 109 set in the 1940’s….Phoenix took high temperature honors for the nation on June 22 with a new record high for the date of 116, only two degrees shy of the city’s all-time hottest recorded temperature….” (Winslow Mail, AZ. “History Does Repeat Itself, Weather You Like it or Not.” 7-1-1988, p. 8.)

 

Delaware

 

NCDC, June 22-23: “Temperatures averaged well up into the 90s, reaching 98 at Wilmington on the 22^nd, which broke the record for that date.” (NCDC. Storm Data, 30/6, June 1988, p. 31.)

 

Illinois

 

NCDC, June: “….Along with the developing severe drought conditions, temperatures across Illinois for the month of June averaged 3 to 4 degrees above normal. Daily maximum temperatures during the month were well above the normal and record daily maximums were set throughout the state on a number of days during June. Included here are some high temperatures recorded over 100 degrees for selected sites across Illinois. Chicago O’Hare Airport – 104 degrees on the 20^th (equaled the highest reading ever recorded for the month of June; 101 degrees on the 21^st; and 103 degrees on the 25^th. (3 days of 100 degrees or more for the month were the most 100 degree days for any June on record.) Springfield – 101 on the 25^th. Moline – 101 the 20^th; 101 on 21^st; 104 on 25^th. Rockford — 101 on the 20^th; 100 on the 21^st; 101 on the 25^th. Peoria — 105 on the (equaled the highest ever recorded for the month of June. Our of nearly 300 co-operative weather stations reporting, the highest recorded temperature for the month of June in Illinois was 106 degrees observed at Piper City in Ford County in east-central Illinois…”

(NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, pp. 34-35.)

 

NCDC, July: “….excessive temperatures were noted across the state during the month. The temperatures during July averaged from near normal in southern sections of Illinois to about 2 to 4 degrees above normal in the north. From the 4^th to the 19^th of the month, average temperatures for the period were about 7 degrees above normal in the north….Many new daily maximum temperature records were set during the month and readings went above the 100 degree mark at many locations….”  (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 30.)

 

NCDC, Aug: “…monthly temperatures in Illinois averaged about 4 to 6 degrees above average and up to 8 degrees above average centered around the Kankakee area. The first 20 days or so of August were exceptionally hot across the state and many maximum temperature records were set. Some Weather Service cooperative stations scattered across the state, recorded 10 or 11 days during the month when the temperature reached 100 degrees or greater. The weather observing site on the Kaskaskia River Lock in Randolph county of southwest Illinois recorded 13 such days and also recorded a maximum temperature of 109 degrees on the 17^th of August which was the highest temperature reached all summer for any location in Illinois. Other notable temperature maximum extremes in August—108 degrees at Piper City on the 16^th and 17^th, and 107 degrees at Kankakee on the 17^th. Maximum temperature at Chicago reached 100 degrees on two separate days in August and marked the 7^th day during the summer and the year that the temperature reached 100 degrees or greater—a new all time record for the most 1000 degree days recorded in a single year in over 116 years of records. In addition, Chicago reached 90 degrees or higher on 46 separate days during the summer months of June through August and this also tied the all time record for the most 90 degree days for a single year on record. Heat-related fatalities throughout the state during the summer were incomplete; however, the Cook County Coroners Office in Chicago reported 39 heat-related deaths between June 1^st and August 19^th.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 32.)

 

Newspapers

 

July 11: “Thick, hot, stagnant air got a gentle push out of the Chicago area Sunday — marking an end to the unrelenting heat wave that pushed pollution levels to the danger zone. But scattered rain that skipped across the state, missed most of the Northwest suburbs Sunday afternoon. Between a quarter and a half-inch of rain had been forecast but all that fell from waves of dark, threatening clouds were scattered raindrops that did nothing to provide relief from a drought gripping the area.

 

“Mother Nature did, however, lend a hand to clean the pollution-laden air, which was trapped Friday with an unhealthy level of ozone, an unstable form of oxygen formed when heat and sunlight react with other pollutants. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency officials issued the area’s first yellow alert for ozone in a decade last week. ‘I don’t think we’ll have to worry about the ozone levels again until the next heat wave,’ said Paul Merzlock, a forecaster with the National Weather Service. The change in the weather, combined with a decrease in auto traffic and industrial pollutants over the weekend, helped to clear the area out, he said.

 

“While other parts of the Chicagoland area did receive some rainfall Sunday, Merzlock said that for the most part, the stronger storms bypassed the area….

 

“Today is expected to provide another break from the oven-like temperatures that have gripped the area for the past week. The forecast calls for sunny, cooler weather…high in the lower 80s.” (Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL. “Raindrops tease area, breeze clears ozone.” 7-11-1988, 1.)

 

July 15: “Du Quoin, Ill. — Scattered thunderstorms provided a taste of relief for parts of the thirsty Farm Belt but the spotty rainfall did little to break the ‘long, hot siege’ wilting the region gripped by drought and a stifling heat wave. President Reagan went to Du Quoin, Ill., Thursday [July 14] to survey withered crops and talk with farmers about what the government could do to help them.” (Daily News, Huntingdon, PA. “World News at a Glance.” 7-15-1988, p. 1.)

 

Indiana

 

July 14: “Another wave of heat is heading for the Hoosier state, and no rain is forecast through Monday, the National Weather Service said. Light showers fell Wednesday over southern Indiana for the second day in a row. However, rainfall measured less than one-fourth of an inch, while the rest of the state was dry, the weather service said. The mercury Wednesday [July 13] hit 90 in Fort Waye, 89 at South Bend and 84 in Evansville, the weather service said

 

“A warming trend will increase those temperatures by several degrees over the next few days. Highs Thursday and Friday are expected to reach 90 to 95 under mostly sunny skies, the weather service said. It will be quite hot and clear Saturday through Monday, with temperatures hitting 95 to 100 Saturday and Sunday. On Monday, the mercury will bubble up to 97 to 102, the weather service said.” (United Press Int.. “Heat Wave.” Rushville Republican, IN. 7-14-1988, 3.)

 

Kansas

 

July 15: “The 1988 heat wave has turned deadly in Kansas. A man found dead in his car in Topeka died of heat stroke, the Shawnee County coroner said Thursday [July 14]. Artis Terry, 51, was found dead in his car about 5 p.m. Wednesday said Dr. Roman Hiszezynskyj, the county coroner. The car was parked with its windows rolled up near Terry’s residence. It was not known how long he had been there, Hiszezynskyj said. The heat index, a measure of temperature and humidity, was 112 in Topeka Wednesday. Hiszezynskyj said the temperature in the car was probably between 130 degrees and 140 degrees.

 

“Five heat deaths had been reported to the Department of Health and Environment this summer, said spokesman Bob Moody.

 

“The heat index rose to 115 in Topeka Thursday. That is about as hot and muggy as it can get., National Weather Service meteorologist Todd Krause said. The high temperatures Thursday were 96 degrees in Topeka and 102 in Wichita…the weather was more uncomfortable in Topeka because of the high humidity, Krause said. The heat index in Wichita reached 109. Even early Thursday morning was muggy. At 7 a.m., the temperature was 78° and the humidity was 88% in Wichita. The high Thursday in Dodge City was 102, just 2 degrees cooler than Wednesday, while the Hutchinson Thursday high of 103 degrees was 1 degree warmer than Wednesday.

 

“Prolonged exposure or physical activity with heat indexes over 105 degrees can cause sunstroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion or even fatal heat strokes.

 

“The heat even is deadly for fish. Reduced oxygen levels aggravated by below average rainfall and hot temperatures may cause fish kills in farm ponds this summer, a Kansas Wildlife and Parks Department official said Thursday. Warm water holds less oxygen than cool water, said Mike Miller, a department spokesman. When a period of hot weather is followed by cloudy, windless days, the problem is aggravated because ponds lose the sunshine used by aquatic plants to manufacture oxygen and the wave action that aerates the water. Dry weather has reduced pond water levels, making them more susceptible to oxygen deficiency because shallow water warms faster… The best way to prevent oxygen related fish kills is to get a source of fresh water for the pond… Spraying or running oxygenated water into the stressed pond probably will prevent fish kills, he said….” (Hutchinson News, KS. “Latest heat wave kills Topeka man.” 7-15-1988, p. 3.)

 

Kentucky

 

July 8: “Authorities blamed hot weather for the death of an elderly woman found in her suburban Louisville mobile home. The woman is believed to be the first victim of the heat wave that again gripped Kentucky Thursday, but Jefferson County Coroner Richard Greathouse warned there may be other fatalities. ‘We’re going to get some heat deaths,’ he said Wednesday [July 7]. ‘It’s predictable. Willa Mattingly, 74 was found June 28 in her mobile home in Fairdale after neighbors had not seen her for several days. The trailer windows were closed and a fan and air conditioner were not on. An autopsy shed Mattingly died of heart failure, complicated by lung problems, but the coroner said the hot weather triggered her death.

 

“Two centers to help senior citizens with health problems escape the heat opened Thursday in Covington and Newport, Ky., and an interagency task force was to meet in Louisville to coordinate hot weather assistance. Temperatures in Kentucky were predicted to hover near 100 for the next five days, with no rain in the forecast….” (United Press International. “First heat wave fatality.” Daily Republican-Register, Mt. Carmel, IL, 7-7-1988, p. 14.)

 

July 15: “Oppressive heat has returned to Kentucky and the National Weather Service has warned that afternoon heat indices are forecast to range from 105 to 115 degrees over western Kentucky this afternoon and Saturday afternoon….” (Times-Tribune, Corbin, KY. “Kentucky Weather. Returning to baking temps.” 7-15-1988, p. 2.)

 

Maryland and District of Columbia

 

NCDC, June 21-23: “Temperatures averaged well into the 90s throughout the state and the District of Columbia, with frequent readings of 100 or higher. Numerous records were broken.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 37.)

 

NCDC, Aug 1-20: “Daytime temperatures averaged well into the 90’s, with several readings over 100. Washington, DC equaled a 1980 record for 21 consecutive days 90° or higher….” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 37.)

 

Massachusetts

 

July 19: “Boston (AP) — Overcast skies and scattered showers brought cooler temperatures to the Boston area Tuesday [July 19], ending three days of intense heat and stifling humidity. And Jeff Waldscricher of the National Weather Service said Tuesday that a cold front moving in from the Great Lakes late Tuesday and early Wednesday was expected to bring with it cooler temperatures and less humidity….Waldscricher said the soaring temperatures over the weekend did not technically constitute a heat wave. It was 92 Saturday, 93, Sunday but only 84 on Monday. Temperatures must be in the 90s for three consecutive days for it to be a heat wave.” (Associated Press. “Showers cool region off.” The Sun, Lowell, MA. 7-20-1988, p. 3.)

 

Michigan

 

MI Dept. of State Police: “Summer 1988 – Central and Eastern U.S. The 1988 drought/heat wave in the Central and Eastern U.S. also greatly impacted Michigan. Nationwide, the drought caused an estimated $40 billion in damages from agricultural losses, disruption of river transportation, water supply shortages, wildfires, and related economic impacts. The heat wave that accompanied the drought conditions was particularly long in Michigan – 39 days with 90 degree or better heat – eclipsing the previous record of 36 days recorded in the “dust bowl” days of 1934. During that 39-day stretch, the temperature in Southeast Michigan topped the 100 degree mark on 5 occasions, including a peak of 104 degrees on June 25. Nationwide, the 1988 drought/heat wave caused an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths. (Again, the range of estimates is due largely to varying interpretations of “heat-related” death.)” (p. 153)

 

Minnesota

 

June 22, AP: “….While the rain provided central Minnesota a bit of relief from the sun, the heat wave continued in southern Minnesota. Rochester recorded its warmest day of the year Tuesday when the temperature soared to 99 degrees. That set a new record for June 21. The old record of 94 degrees was set in 1956. It was the seventh day this year that the temperature in Rochester had reached at least 90 degrees, the weather service said. The temperature exceeds 90 degrees six times during a normal year. Among other southern Minnesota cities, it was 101 degrees in Redwood Falls, 100 in Fairmont, 98 in Worthington and 96 in Mankato. It was 91 in the Twin Cities and 84 in Duluth. The period from May 20 through Monday has been the warmest and the second driest in the Twin Cities compared to the same period since 1836, said Greg Spoden, assistant state climatologist.” (Associated Press. “Thunderstorms tease state with scant rainfall.” Albert Lea Tribune, MN, 6-22-1988, p. 3.)

 

Mississippi

 

June 28: “Temperatures continue to rise in Jones County, reaching 100 degrees Monday [June 27] according to the official report – a record for the summer.” (Laurel Leader-Call (Gwen Posey), MS. “Temperature reaches 100, little relief in sight.” 6-28-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 29: “By The Associated Press….The 100-degree temperatures have become the subject of conversation….Not since the summer of 1980, when temperatures climbed past the 110-degree mark in southern Mississippi for a dozen days, have thermometers been reading so high…[120] Approximately 10 cases of heat exhaustion have been reported at Forest General Hospital…but the more serious heat stroke has not surfaced yet….The sweltering heat reached a record-breaking 104 in Lauderdale County Monday [June 27].” (AP. “Heat wave in state could break records.” Laurel Leader-Call, MS, 6-29-1988, p. 8.)

 

New Hampshire

 

June 16: “The heat wave which gripped the greater Nashua area since Sunday broke Thursday [16^th], when heavy showers pelted the area and reduced temperatures from the 90s to the 70s.” (Sunday Telegraph, Nashua, NH. “This Week as it Was.” 6-19-1988, A4.)

 

New Jersey

 

NCDC, July: “Temperatures reached 90 degrees or higher on at least 15 days over most of Southern New Jersey. Some areas, especially west portions, reached 90 degrees on 21 days. The temperature reached 100 degrees or above 3 or 4 days. There were 2 or 3 periods of 90 degrees or higher on 5 to 9 consecutive days….” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 46.)

 

July 18: “….Newark, N.J., set a record-high temperature for the date of 100 degrees, breaking the old high of 99 set in 1977. It was the fifth time Newark topped 100 degrees this year.” (Associated Press. “Nation’s weather.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-18-1988, p. 2.)

 

New York

 

NCDC, Eastern NY, June 13-16: “A tropical heat wave gripped Eastern New York. The heat wave caused water shortages and outages. Power consumption rose to near record levels and caused scattered brownouts/blackouts. Eight (8) persons had to be treated for heat-related illnesses.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 45.)

 

NCDC, Eastern NY, Aug 1-17: “Severe heat and humidity covered Eastern New York. Five participants of the Empire State Games were treated for heat-related problems. Two others in Eastern New York were also treated.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 46.)

 

Aug 15, NYC: “New York City has been roasting for six weeks in what is said to be the worst heat wave since the mid-1950’s. A carriage horse collapsed there Sunday and a racing club, for the first time in 30 years, changed a road race through Central Park into a fun run…” (The Intelligencer, Doylestown, PA. “Newsbreak.” 8-15-1988, p. 1.)

 

North Dakota

 

NCDC, June 1-29: “It was the hottest June on record at every major station across North Dakota. There were 13 to 22 days with temperatures of 90 degrees or more. In the west and south-central sections, 7 to 10 of these days were 100 degrees or more. Breien, in south-central North Dakota, recorded the highest temperature, 108 degrees on the 27^th. Bismarck and Washburn recorded maximum temperatures of 107 degrees on the same day.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 48.)

 

Ohio

 

Schmidlin and Schmidlin on “25 June 1988. Hot Saturday”: “An early summer heat wave in the midst of the hot summer and drought of 1988 brought some of the hottest weather ever in far northern Ohio. This was Cleveland’s hottest day since records began in 1871.

 

“June had been hot and dry in Ohio and throughout the Midwest. Hot southwest summer winds from Texas and Mexico are usually modified y passing over green, moist forests and crops before reaching Ohio. But in June 1988, there was nothing but dry, parched ground between Texas and Ohio. The strong southwest wind on 25 June brought 100-degree air directly from the southern Plains….Temperatures reached 95 degrees at every reporting station in Ohio and exceeded 100 degrees in most of the western and central counties…The hottest official reading in Ohio was 106 degrees at Cincinnati-Fernbank. This was the second hottest June temperature ever recorded in Ohio, exceeded only by 108 degrees at Germantown on 29 June 1934. Temperatures on this Hot Saturday reached 105 at Tiffin, Napoleon, and Hoytville.

 

“The high of 104 degrees at Cleveland was the hottest temperature since records began at Cleveland in 1871, exceeding the previous record of 103 set on 27 July 1941. Toledo also recorded a high of 104, breaking the June heat record of 101 for Toledo but missing the all-time record of 105 set on 14 July 1936. Southwest winds of fifteen to twenty-five miles an hour, gusting to more than forty, combined with dry soil, low humidity, and drought-stunted crops to raise clouds of dust.

 

“Much cooler air arrived on Sunday, 26 June, with temperatures 30 degrees cooler than on Saturday. By Monday morning, a record low of 45 degrees was recorded at Toledo, just forty hours after the hottest June day in more than one hundred years!” (Schmidlin, Thomas W. and Jeanne Appelhans Schmidlin. Thunder in the Heartland: A Chronicle of Outstanding Weather Events in Ohio. 1996, pp. 144-146.)

 

June 25, Elyria: “…Saturday’s [June 25] all-time high of 104…” (Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria-Chronicle, OH. “104° Saturday. This morning 49!” 6-28-1988, p. 1.)

 

June 27: “Northeast Ohioans will get a break this week from the roasting weekend temperatures and the long string of 90-degree days. Temperatures reached an all-time high of 104 degrees on Saturday [25^th] but dropped sharply to a 72-high degree high on Sunday after scattered showers. Sunday’s overnight low was 51. The thermometer is expected to hover between 75 and 85 until Friday, said Matthew Peroutka, National Weather Service meteorologist in Cleveland….Fire officials are watching for the possibility of sporadic brush fires caused by the dry weather….”

(Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH. “New worry: Brush fires.” 6-27-1988, p. 1.)

 

July 17, Sandusky Register: “The heat wave lingering in Ohio much of this summer was at record levels again Saturday [16^th] across the state, with 100-degree readings being reported at least five National Weather Service stations….The Coast Guard Station at Marblehead recorded a high temperature of 100 Saturday, with a low of 82.5 at about 11 p.m….The high mark for the day of 103 in Zanesville was the highest temperature ever recorded by the weather service in the city about 60 miles east of Columbus. Records for the date were set or tied at as many as eight other locations, with readings of 100 at Akron-Canton, Dayton, Youngstown and Columbus, 99 in Cleveland and Findlay, and 98 in Mansfield and Toledo. Saturday was the 18^th day of 90-degree weather in the Northeast Ohio city and the 11^th such day out of the last 13. Youngstown averages just 6.6 90-degrees days a year. Making the temperature feel even higher was above-normal humidity.” (Sandusky Register, OH. “Another hot day in Ohio.” 7-17-1988, p. 1.)

 

Aug 18, Elyria Chronicle-Telegram: “A heat wave departed Ohio after delivering a final blast of scorching temperatures that set records across the state, prompting customers to demand record-breaking amounts of electricity. Locally, the old mark of 88 degrees for Aug 17, set in 1956, fell as the mercury reached 100 degrees Wednesday….

 

“In addition to Cleveland, the National Weather Service said high temperature records for the date were set Wednesday in Dayton, which recorded 102 degrees; Cincinnati, 102; Columbus, Mansfield, and Youngstown, all three with 97 degrees; and Toledo, with 96. Along Lake Erie, it was even too hot to fish.

 

“In Cincinnati, where a heat emergency remained in effect, ‘cool centers’ were open for those who needed them. The centers are air-conditioned shelters in recreation centers and other public buildings that stay open until 10:30 p.m….

 

“At the Ohio State Fair in Columbus, the heat was so uncomfortable that the daily 4:30 p.m. parade at the fair-grounds Wednesday [Aug 17]was canceled…” (Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH. “Felt like it was about 100° Wednesday? It was,” 9-18-1988, A8.)

 

Pennsylvania

 

NCDC, July, eastern PA: “Temperatures reached 90 degrees or higher on at least 13 days in July except for the higher elevations in the mountains, and even there it occurred on 8 to 10 days. In the Philadelphia area it occurred on 21 days. There were consecutive days of as many as 9 with 90 degrees or higher. Temperatures reached 100 degrees at least once in all but the higher elevations. This occurred 5 times in Williamsport and 4 times in Harrisburg and Philadelphia. Average temperatures for July made it anywhere from the 2^nd to the 5^th warmest July on record….” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 56.)

 

Ramlow and Kuller on Allegheny County (west PA), July: Abstract: “The authors studied total mortality in Allegheny County, PA, during the summer of 1988. A heat wave occurred in July of 1988, with daily maximum temperatures near or above 90 degrees Fahrenheit on 15 consecutive days. During that period there were a total of 694 deaths from all causes in the county, compared with an expected 587 deaths (P less than .01). All 107 excess deaths were of persons ages 65 or older, with the majority (78) occurring to persons older than age 75. Daily mortality was most closely correlated with average temperature from the previous day (R = .49, P less than .01), suggesting the cumulative effects of successive high daytime and night-time temperatures on susceptible persons….

 

“The summer of 1988 was unusually hot and dry in much of the United States, setting records for high temperatures and low rainfall in many areas. These conditions also prevailed in Allegheny County, PA, surrounding the city of Pittsburgh, where the summer was the hottest in the last 100 years. Daily average temperatures exceeded the expected normal on 63 of 92 days in June, July, and August, and a heat wave with 15 consecutive daily maximums above or near 90 degrees (°) Fahrenheit (F) occurred during the first half of July.” (p. 283.).” (Ramlow and Kuller. “Effects of the Summer Heat Wave of 1988 on Daily Mortality in Allegheny County, PA.” Public Health Reports, Vol. 105, No. 3, May-June 1990, pp. 283-289.)

 

July 7-8: “….In Indiana, Pa., a 3½ month-old girl died Thursday [July 7] of dehydration and exposure to extreme heat after her mother apparently left her in a closed car for four hours. At Pittsburgh International Airport, about 30 miles to the west, Friday’s high of 99 broke the record of 97 set in 1876…” (AP. “Nation’s weather.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-9-1988, p. 2.)

 

July 16, AP on Pittsburgh area, Allegheny County: “Pennsylvania’s heat wave was on its way to being the worst in more than 100 years in the Pittsburgh area today, according to the National Weather Service. With highs forecast close to 100, the weather service noted that today would be the 13^th consecutive day of temperatures of 90 degrees or higher. The longest stretch like that before this year was in the summer of 1881, when the highs were above 90 degrees 12 days from July 3 through July 14. This year’s heat wave in Pittsburgh started July 4, when the high was 93. To make matters worse, the weather service said, the humidity was up today with the heat as a warm front from the state of Indian moved into Pennsylvania….Today’s near 100 temperature marks the 21^st time it was 90 or hotter this year. The record for 90-plus days was also the summer of 1881. That summer had an incredible 50 days of 90 degrees or more….” (Associated Press. “Mercury soars, records tumble,” The News-Herald, Franklin, PA, 7-16-1988, p. 1.)

 

Vermont

 

NCDC, Aug 1-17: “Blistering heat and high humidity roasted the state of Vermont.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 58.)

 

NCDC, Aug 1-20: “Extreme northern Virginia. Temperatures averaged well in the 90’s, with some readings above 100. The area averaged 3 to 4 degrees above normal for the month of August.” (NCDC. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 59.)

 

Wisconsin

 

July 15, Madison: “Weather. Hot. Muggy. It just keeps on coming. No relief to the heat wave is likely until the middle of next week. Tuesday [July 19] will provide the next good chance for rain. Highs continue in the 90s with overnight lows in the high 60s to low 70s. You can cool off in Superior tomorrow, where the high will be about 81.” (Capital Times, Madison, WI. “Weather.” 7-15-1988, p. 2.)

 

West Virginia

 

July 8: “….West Virginia broiled under a second straight day of 100-degree heat Friday. Triple-digit record highs were reported in Charleston and Huntington.” (Associated Press. “Nation’s weather.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-9-1988, p. 2.)

 

 

General Narrative Information on Heat-Related Deaths

 

Kalkstein and Greene: “Although the most direct impact of heat on the human body is the onset of heat exhaustion or heat stroke, the increase in mortality associated with hot weather cuts across many causes of death. For example, deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disorders and from some types of accidents typically increase during stressful weather conditions.[121] Heat stroke and heat exhaustion represent only a small proportion of the mortality increase. During hot weather, the total death rate from all causes, and especially from cardiovascular diseases, may be more than double the long-term mean death rate. Because of this diversity in cause of death, in many studies the number of heat-related deaths is determined empirically as the number of deaths occurring in excess of the background expected number.[122] Thus, total deaths above a baseline, rather than disaggregated causes of death, are often evaluated in weather/mortality studies.[123] The most recent analyses of heat-related deaths in cities in the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, China, Greece, Germany, and the Middle East provide supporting evidence that overall death rates rise during heatwaves. Virtually all of these studies have documented a threshold temperature beyond which mortality rises rapidly. However, some studies, especially in Western Europe, suggest that mortality rises linearly with increasing temperature, and even moderate heat can lead to excess deaths.[124] (Kalkstein and Greene. “An evaluation of climate/mortality relationships in large U.S. cities and the possible impacts of a climate change.” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 105, No. 1, Jan 1997, p. 84.)

 

Rosenthal: “….Exposure to heat is the number one weather-related cause of death in American cities, causing more fatalities on average per year than floods, lightning, tornadoes, hurricanes, and extreme cold combined (Gaffen, 1998;[125] NOAA, 2009[126]). Heat-associated mortality is typically seen as excess mortality due to cardiovascular or respiratory causes during hot weather (that is, conditions above the norm for a given location). Because heat is rarely coded as a contributing cause on death certificates, health researchers examine baseline mortality rates during abnormally warm weather and compare these rates to those of a comparable reference time period in previous years (Hoshiko et al., 2010[127])….Those over 65 years of age and people with pre-existing cardiovascular and/or respiratory illnesses are especially vulnerable populations (Basu & Samet, 2002). Poor populations are at greater risk of health burdens in hot weather and have fewer resources available for adaptive measures (IPCC, 2007)….” (pp. 26-27)

 

“One of the goals of…research investigating the UHI [urban heat island] effect is to identify potentially modifiable elements and exposure routes that contribute to heat-health impacts. Previous research has suggested that the spatial distribution of the heat island effect may be a factor in creating areas of higher risk of heat-related mortality within NYC. (Clarke, 1972)[128] suggested that the combined effect of increased radiant heat load in cities with reduced ventilation and higher ambient temperatures creates unhealthy conditions during hot days and heat events. Noting that the death rate was higher in cities than in outlying suburban and rural areas during heat waves, Clarke was one of the first to suggest that excess deaths during heat events may be reduced through urban design and land-use measures. Brick and concrete have a higher heat conductivity and storage capacity than natural land-cover; much of the daytime solar radiation is effectively stored [end p. 53] in urban structures. During nighttime, the solar heat stored in buildings is reradiated to the immediate environment, keeping the interior air temperature of un-airconditioned buildings warmer than that to the exterior atmospheric environment (Clarke, 1972; Smargiassi, 2008[129]).” [p. 54] (Rosenthal. Evaluating the impact of the urban heat island on public health: Spatial and social determinants of heat-related mortality in New York City. 2010.)

 

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National Climatic Data Center. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Table of Events. “U.S. Drought/Heatwave, Summer 1988.” Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/events

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 5, May 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-0D5633BF-5638-4D96-B2A7-379F85B437AB.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-14-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-D0061FEC-AB30-4063-9B38-7661D35ADD02.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-15-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-D4C29D2C-8ECE-48E0-A691-20768DB72153.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, August 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-15-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-17372485-87B6-4F38-92F1-9C41FB3E71A0.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 9, September 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-3871A3F2-5EFE-4776-9735-E0A011B4DC63.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 10, October 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-558F1FEA-C2E6-4B12-BA76-83A092112DAF.pdf

 

National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 11, November 1988. Asheville, NC: NCDC, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-C9EAF6A2-BDB9-4654-BB2D-D658EC89AD05.pdf

 

New York Times (Dirk Johnson). “Heat Wave: The Nation; In Chicago, Week of Swelter Leaves an Overflowing Morgue.” 7-17-1995. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/17/us/heat-wave-the-nation-in-chicago-week-of-swelter-leaves-an-overflowing-morgue.html

 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries (1988). “Inspection: 100585538 – Maintain Incorporated.” Washington, DC: OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=100585538

 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries (1988). “Inspection: 101353167 – Barton Chemical Co.” Washington, DC: OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=101353167

 

Occupational Health and Safety Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries (1988). “Inspection: 103526489 – Collins Railroad Construction Co.” Washington, DC: OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=103526489

 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries (1988). “Inspection: 103750899 – Treguboff Dairy.” Washington, DC: OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=103750899

 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries (1988). “Inspection: 17431958 – Danis-Shook Construction Company.” Washington, DC: OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/establishment.inspection_detail?id=17431958

 

Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN. “Thunderstorms bring some relief to Central U.S.” 6-29-1988, p. 12. Accessed 7-18-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/indiana/logansport/logansport-pharos-tribune/1988/06-29/page-12?tag

 

Philly.com. “Lethal Weather How to Keep Heat Waves From Claiming Lives.” 8-15-1991. Accessed 7-25-2016 at: http://articles.philly.com/1991-08-15/news/25806964_1_heat-related-deaths-heat-waves-heat-stress

 

Ramlow, Jonathan M, and Lewis H. Kuller. “Effects of the Summer Heat Wave of 1988 on Daily Mortality in Allegheny County, PA.” Public Health Reports, Vol. 105, No. 3, May-June 1990, pp. 283-289. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1579995/pdf/pubhealthrep00196-0069.pdf

 

Roach, Matthew (MPH). Epidemiology Program Manager, Environmental Toxicology Program & Climate and Health Program, Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, AZ. Email to Wayne Blanchard 8-4-2016 in response to information request on 1988 AZ heat-related deaths.

 

Rosenthal, Joyce Klein. Evaluating the impact of the urban heat island on public health: Spatial and social determinants of heat-related mortality in New York City (Doctoral Dissertation). NYC: Columbia University, 2010. Accessed 7-30-2016 at: http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac%3A148820

 

Ross, Tom, and Neal Lott. A Climatology of Recent Extreme Weather and Climate Events (Technical Report 2000-02). Asheville, NC: National Climatic Data Center, NOAA, October 2000. Accessed 7-21-2016 at: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/techrpts/tr200002/tr2000-02.pdf

 

Sandusky Register, OH. “Another hot day in Ohio.” 7-17-1988, p. 1. Accessed 7-25-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/ohio/sandusky/sandusky-sunday-register/1988/07-17?tag

 

Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 6-26-1988, A6. Accessed 6-11-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/sandusky-register-jun-26-1988-p-6/

 

Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 7-17-1988, A-6. Accessed 6-18-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/sandusky-sunday-register-jul-17-1988-p-6/

 

Schmid, Randolph E. (Associated Press). “Killer heat of summer 1988 may be largest disaster this century.” Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-17-1988, p. 3A. Accessed 7-25-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/north-carolina/burlington/burlington-daily-times-news/1988/08-17/page-3?tag

 

Schmidlin, Thomas W. and Jeanne Appelhans Schmidlin. Thunder in the Heartland: A Chronicle of Outstanding Weather Events in Ohio. Kent State University Press, 1996, 362 pages.  Partially digitized by Google at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=QANPLARGXFMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false

 

Sunday Telegraph, Nashua, NH. “This Week as it Was.” 6-19-1988, A4. Accessed 6-11-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/nashua-telegraph-jun-19-1988-p-4/

 

Tenkotte, Paul A. and James C. Claypool (Editors). The Encyclopedia of Northern Kentucky. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2009. Partially Google digitized. Accessed 7-21-2016 at: https://books.google.com/books?id=Zc0eBgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

The Capital (Cynthia Smith), Annapolis, MD. “Heat blamed for worker’s death.” 8-19-1988, B1. Accessed 7-22-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/maryland/annapolis/annapolis-capital/1988/08-19/page-11?tag

 

The Intelligencer, Doylestown, PA. “Newsbreak.” 8-15-1988, p. 1. Accessed 7-30-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/pennsylvania/doylestown/doylestown-intelligencer/1988/08-15/page-41?tag

 

Times-Tribune, Corbin, KY. “Kentucky Weather. Returning to baking temps.” 7-15-1988, p. 2. Accessed 6-17-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/corbin-times-tribune-jul-15-1988-p-2/

 

Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. “Elderly At Risk In Heat Wave.” 7-13-1988, p. 7. Accessed 6-17-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/tyrone-daily-herald-jul-13-1988-p-7/

 

Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. “Mid-Atlantic.” 8-19-1988, p. 2. Accessed 8-1-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/pennsylvania/tyrone/tyrone-daily-herald/1988/08-19?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Baby, it’s hot outside.” Key West Citizen, 8-11-1988, p. 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-11/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Can rain really be on its way to Iowa?” Oskaloosa Herald, IA. 6-18-1988, p. 2. Accessed 7-18-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/iowa/oskaloosa/oskaloosa-herald/1988/06-18/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI), Indiana, PA. “Charges filed after infant dies in car.” New Castle News, PA, 8-29-1988, p. 18. Accessed 8-2-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/pennsylvania/new-castle/new-castle-news/1988/08-29/page-18?tag

 

United Press International (UPI), Karen Lee Scrivo.  “Cold front brings brief relief.” 8-6-1988. Accessed 7-23-2016 at: http://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/06/Cold-front-brings-brief-relief/4502586843200/

 

United Press International (UPI). “Country is roasting.” Key West Citizen, 8-15-1988, 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-15/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI) (Frank T. Csongos). “Drought Still Grips Midwest.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 6-26-1988, p. A4. Accessed 7-21-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/maryland/cumberland/cumberland-sunday-times-news/1988/06-26/page-4?tag

 

United Press International. “East’s Heatwave Breaks But Midwest Bakes.” Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. 6-17-1988, p. 2. Accessed 6-11-2019: https://newspaperarchive.com/tyrone-daily-herald-jun-17-1988-p-2/

 

United Press International (UPI). “First heat wave fatality.” Daily Republican-Register, Mt. Carmel, IL, 7-7-1988, p. 14. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/illinois/mount-carmel/mount-carmel-daily-republican-register/1988/07-07/page-14?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Forecasters promise: killer heat will pass.” Key West Citizen, 8-17-1988, 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-17/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Heat blamed in deaths of eight senior citizens.” Key West Citizen, FL. 7-19-1988, p. 2. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/07-19/page-2?tag

 

United Press International. “Heat sizzles Plains.” Key West Citizen, 8-9-1988, 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-09/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Heat Wave.” Rushville Republican, IN. 7-14-1988, p. 3. Accessed 6-17-2019 at: https://newspaperarchive.com/rushville-republican-jul-14-1988-p-3/

 

United Press International (UPI). “Heat wave kills 21.” Key West Citizen, FL. 6-17-1988, p. 2. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/06-17/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Heat wave persists.” Key West Citizen, FL, 8-3-1988, p. 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-03/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Late night temperatures remaining high in West.” Key West Citizen, FL. 7-20-1988, p. 2. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/07-20/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Little relief in sight for drought hit farmers.” Key West Citizen, FL. 6-19-1988, p. 2. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/06-19/page-2?tag

 

United Press International. “Muggy heat still clings to Midwest.” Greensburg Daily News, IN. 7-16-1988, p. 1. Accessed 6-17-2019: https://newspaperarchive.com/greensburg-daily-news-jul-16-1988-p-1/

 

United Press International (UPI). “Rain cools midwest.” Key West Citizen, 8-8-1988, p. 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-07/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Rain cools nation.” Key West Citizen, FL, 8-23-1988, 2A. Accessed 7-17-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/florida/key-west/key-west-citizen/1988/08-23/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI).  “Rain Interrupts Heat Wave in Eastern U.S.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 7-24-1988, p. A2. Accessed 7-21-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/maryland/cumberland/cumberland-sunday-times-news/1988/07-24/page-2?tag

 

United Press International (UPI). “Summer’s heat has claimed 50 lives.” 8-14-1988. Accessed 7-21-2016 at: http://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/14/Summers-heat-has-claimed-50-lives/8985587534400/

 

Whitman, Steven, et al. Mortality and the mid-July heat wave in Chicago. Chicago Department of Public Health, 1995, 21 pages.

 

Whitman, Steven, et al. “Mortality in Chicago Attributed to the July 1995 Heat Wave.” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 87, No. 9, September 1997, pp. 1515-1518. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1380980/pdf/amjph00508-0117.pdf

 

Winslow Mail, AZ. “History Does Repeat Itself, Weather You Like it or Not.” 7-1-1988, p. 8. Accessed 7-16-2016 at: http://newspaperarchive.com/us/arizona/winslow/winslow-mail/1988/07-01/page-8?tag

 

 

 

 

 

[1] Projection of “Certainly more than 10,000 deaths,” reported in: Los Angeles Times (Larry Green and Mark Lawrence). “Health Expert Says 10,000 Could Perish in Heat Wave.” 8-17-1988. (See Narrative Information.)

[2] No source citation.

[3] No source citation, nor information on how theses figures were derived. Sent email to NCDC Public Affairs 8-2-2016 seeking information on the source for these figures and how they were derived.

[4] No source citation, nor information on how theses figures were derived.

[5] No source citation, nor information on how theses figures were derived.

[6] Wording of paragraph this estimated figure is found within suggests the source is NCDC/NOAA.

[7] “Summer 1988…estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths (includes heat stress-related).” Only source cited in NCDC, NOAA. Billion Dollar Weather Disasters 1980-1999.

[8] “Locally and nationally, the summer of 1988 was devastating in relation to heat and drought. Some 7,500 heat-related deaths occurred, mainly across the eastern United States, along with an estimated $61.6 billion in drought damage and aid.” (Source not cited.)

[9] No source citation, nor information on how this figure was derived.

[10] CDC. “Heat-Related Deaths – Philadelphia and United States, 1993-1994,” MMWR, 43/25, 7-1-1994, p. 453-55. From the article’s Editorial Note: “….During 1987-1988 [two years], 1092 death certificates listed excessive heat as either the primary or a contributing cause of death.”

[11] Compiled by Wayne Blanchard in July, 2016; revised June 2019 for upload to: http://www.usdeadlyevents.com

[12] We see no reason to use the 5,000-10,000 deaths noted by NCDC personnel in several publications or those who apparently use NCDC numbers. It appears these figures are based on speculation by W. Moulton Avery in 1988. Have sought, unsuccessfully, to communicate with NCDC and with W. Moulton Avery, with the National Center for Cold Water (at least as of 8-12-2016).

[13] A CDC document notes that over a 14-year period (1979-1992) “a total of 5379 deaths in the United States were attributed to excessive heat, classified according to the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9), as E900.0, “excessive heat due to weather conditions”; E900.1, “excessive heat of man-made origin”; or E900.9, “accidents due to excessive heat of unspecified origin.” These data were obtained from CDC’s Compressed Mortality File (CMF), which contains information from death certificates filed in the 50 states and the District of Columbia that have been prepared in accordance with external cause codes.” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Heat-Related Illnesses and Deaths – United States, 1994-1995,” MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report), Vol. 44, No. 25, 6-30-1995, pp. 465-468.) Thus, on 7-24-2016 we conducted a data search on the CDC WONDER website and recovered data using these three codes  indicating 210 E900.0 deaths, 15 E900.1 deaths and 299 E900.9 deaths, for a total of 524. In the State breakouts below these are the ICD-9 codes used.

 

[14] AP. “Rain soaks areas in Midwest.” Daily Independent, Kannapolis, NC, 7-1-1988, A2. Victim was Thelma Lane. CDC WONDER search also notes an excessive heat death of a female, 75-84 in Mobile County.

[15] Number of 22 is from Matthew Roach, Epidemiology Program Manager, AZ Dept. of Health Services, in email to Blanchard dated 8-4-2016. He noted he used CDC’s Wonder Database searching for ICD 9 Code E900, “the code for accidental death caused by excessive heat due to weather conditions.”

[16] AP, Mesa, AZ. “Heat kills tot in closed auto.” News-Herald, Del Rio, TX, 8-21-1988, 7A. Notes the boy, James Michael Krick Jr. of Glendale, had been left in the car for about two hours. Investigators were cited as noting the boy probably died within 30 minutes. Also writes: “Paramedics who tried…to revive the boy took his temperature, but it was too high to measure with the thermometer, said police…” CDC WONDER also notes excessive heat death of a male, age 1-4, in Maricopa County.

[17] Occupational Safety and Health Administration. “Inspection: 103750899 – Treguboff Dairy.” Highlighted in yellow to denote we are not including in tally in that this death is probably one of those noted by the CDC.

[18] LA Times (Ronald B. Taylor). “Ill-Trained to Survive: Marine’s Death in Desert: Mistakes Led to Tragedy.” 12-27-1988. Writes that Lance Corporal Jayson J. Rother was on the 3^rd day of a 3-day desert exercise, when posted as a road guide during night maneuvers at the Marine Air-Ground Combat Center. The next morning his and all other unites pulled out leaving him behind – “No one reported him missing for two days…” His body was not discovered until Dec 4, when a San Bernardino County Sheriff’s Dept. unit conducting their own exercise, discovered his skeleton, rifle and other equipment in a rock-strewn gully approximately 17 miles from where he had been posted – toward the direction his unit had withdrawn. A USMC report of Sept. 12, noted “There is sufficient evidence to conclude that LCpl Rother is UA (unauthorized leave).”

[19] Figure 3, “Annual Temperature Deaths, Florida, 1979-1999.” Figure 3 is a chart which shows heat deaths in one color and cold deaths in another on the same horizontal bar for each year. The fatality range shown on the left of the chart is in increments of five, going up to thirty. The bars for each year are shown diagonally and do not show any numbers. This does not make them readily readable. Thus one has to measure with a ruler the bar showing the lowest combined deaths (1979), which appears to show one cold death and one heat death. With the unit of measurement of one death then measured against the heat portion of all the other bars, one can get an approximation of the heat deaths for each year. I say “approximate” in that by this method we counted 133 heat deaths over the 21-year period included in the graph, whereas the text of the article notes that there were 125. Repetitious measurement attempts gave us the same result. The article notes that the data came from death certificates collected by the Public Health Statistics Section, Office of Vital Statistics, Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services.

[20] Occupational Safety and Health Admin.. “Inspection: 17431958 – Danis-Shook Construction Company.” Highlighted in yellow to note not included in total in that we assume this is one of two deaths in CDC WONDER.

[21] Includes 18 CDC WONDER-noted deaths, Bibb County male, 52, death, Thomas County female death (heart attack brought on by heatstroke. Range ambiguity has to do with Hall County “apparent heatstroke” female death.

[22] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 33.

[23] Also CDC WONDER, which notes one heat-related death of a male, 85+, in Dodge County in 1988.

[24] Age range is from CDC WONDER which lists one female heat-related fatality in Dodge County in 1988.

[25] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 32. Also CDC WONDER.

[26] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 29.

[27] UPI (Frank T. Csongos). “Drought Still Grips Midwest.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 6-26-1988, p. A4.

[28] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 31. Also CDC WONDER, male, 65-74.

[29] AP. “Drought in Ninth Day as Crops Wither, Livestock Dies.” Cumberland Times-News, MD, 6-25-1988, p. 1; UPI (Frank T. Csongos). “Drought Still Grips Midwest.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 6-26-1988, p. A4.

[30] Also CDC WONDER, which notes one excessive heat death of a male, 65-74 in Whitfield County in 1988.

[31] See below – figures from Chicago Public Health Department.

[32] Chicago Tribune. “Heat’s Toll Worse Than Believed.” 9-21-1995. Based on just-released study by the Chicago Public Health Department. Writes: “A re-examination of mortality figures found an extra 232 deaths during the 1988 heat wave.” (NYT. “Heat Wave: The Nation…” 7-17-1995). Another source writes that these were “excess deaths” above the August average. (Changnon, Kunkel and Reinke 1996, p. 1495, citing Whitman 1995). Another source (Whitman, et al., 1997, p. 1517), writes there were 294 “excess deaths” in Chicago in August 1988, a 12% increase above “baseline deaths.” Not all, however, were designated as heat-related.

[33] Daily Herald (Dave Olsen) Arlington Heights, IL. “August heat wave blamed for Palatine woman’s death.” 8-6-1988, p. 1. Notes temperature inside home exceeded 90 degrees. Identified victim as Adele M. Bowman.

[34] UPI. “Heat sizzles Plains.” Key West Citizen, 8-9-1988, 2A. Notes windows closed; victim was Lillian Emmling.

[35] Occupational Safety and Health Administration. “Inspection: 101353167 – Barton Chemical Co.”

[36] UPI. “Baby, it’s hot outside.” Key West Citizen, 8-11-1988, p. 2A. Identifies victim as Jaia Rybeck.

[37] Cites Roy Dames, spokesman for the Cook County Medical Examiner’s Office. Notes all were elderly.

[38] Chicago Tribune. “Record Summer Heat Claims 57^th Victim.” 9-27-1988. Cause of death ruled after autopsy according to medical examiner’s office. Victim identified as James Tamer, who was in a coma when found on Aug 7. Notes: “His body temperature was 108 degrees” and that the outside temperature was 94 degrees.

[39] Deaths designated as heat-related by medical examiner. Whitman, et al., write: “The Cook County Medical Examiner’s Office certifies a death as heat related if there was no history of trauma or evidence of fatal injury an the case met at least one of several criteria. First, the measured body temperature had to be 105°F (40.6°C) or higher before or immediately after death. Second, there had to be evidence of high environmental temperature at the scene of death, usually greater than 100°F (37.8°C). Finally, the body had to be decomposed, and investigation had to disclose that the person was last seen alive during the heat wave period and that the environmental temperature at the time would have been high.” (p. 1515)

[40] Associated Press. “23 cities set heat records and death toll mushrooms.” Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH, 8-19-1988, A2. Cites Cook County officials and notes most of the victims were elderly.

[41] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 32.

[42] Chicago Tribune (Jody Temkin). “Chicago Sweating its Way to Yet Another Heat Record.” 8-17-1988. Identifies victim as Rose Marie Browski.

[43] “Kane County Coroner Mary Lou Kearns estimates she has had ‘around 10’ cases of death caused by heat.”

[44] Assoc. Press. “23 cities set heat records and death toll mushrooms.” Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH, 8-19-1988, A2. Notes that “his body temperature was 105 degrees when he was found in his home.” Also; CDC WONDER.

[45] Lake County is to the southeast of Chicago with the northern border fronting on Lake Michigan. The is also a Lake County in Illinois and the article notes there were 16 heat-related deaths there. The article specifically notes that there were 21 heat-related deaths in “Lake County, Ind.”

[46] Notes that a heat wave was blamed for 7 deaths and that another five may have been heat-related.

[47] AP, Indianapolis. “Woman dies of heat exposure.” Kokomo Tribune, IN, 6-17-1988, p. 12. Cites autopsy results. Identified as Clara Rardon. (UPI. “Can rain really be on its way to Iowa?” Oskaloosa Herald, IA. 6-18-1988, p. 2.) CDC WONDER also notes excessive heat death of a female, 65-74 in Marion County in 1988.

[48] Tyrone Daily Herald, PA. “Mid-Atlantic.” 8-19-1988, p. 2. Victims identified as Pauline H. Felton and her niece Georgia Jones, in home they shared. Notes outdoor temperatures reached 102 degrees. CDC WONDER notes excessive heat deaths of three females, 75-84, in Marion County in 1988, as we also note.

[49] AP, Indianapolis. “Heat Blamed for 3 Deaths.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-18-1988, p. 9. Victim identified as Mayme Yarborough. Article notes temperature in her home was 100° when body was found approximately 12 hours after dying. Body temperature at time of discovery was 99.5, “almost certainly a heat-related death” according to Marion County Coroner’s Office. CDC WONDER notes 3 female deaths 75-84 age range, as do we.

[50] AP, Indianapolis. “Heat Blamed for 3 Deaths.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-18-1988, p. 9. Victim identified as John Patrick Doherty. CDC WONDER notes one excessive heat death of a male, 55-64 in Marion County, whereas we note two from other sources.

[51] AP, Indianapolis. “Heat Blamed for 3 Deaths.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-18-1988, p. 9. In that we have otherwise accounted for CDC WONDER-noted deaths in the county, except for the death of a male, 85+ years of age, we believe this may well refer to that death. In that the CDC does not note date of deaths, we cannot be sure.

[52] AP, Indianapolis. “Two More Deaths Blamed on Heat.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-23-1988, p. 7. Victim identified as Johnnie Sanders. CDC WONDER notes excessive heat deaths of 3 females, Marion Co., 75-84.

[53] AP, Indianapolis. “Two More Deaths Blamed on Heat.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-23-1988, p. 7.

[54] AP. “Heat Wave Continues in Indiana Today.” Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN, 8-3-1988, p. 2. Victim identified as Delaney C. Hancock, whose death was ruled by coroner as dehydration due to heat exhaustion.” See, also: UPI. “Heat wave persists.” Key West Citizen, FL, 8-3-1988, p. 2A.

[55] Associated Press, Richmond, IN. “Mother acquitted in baby’s death.” Kokomo Tribune, IN. 8-26-1988, p. 6. Notes that 21-year-old carnival worker mother had left the baby in a trailer home. Also noted by CDC WONDER as excessive heat death of female <1 year old.

[56] The age range is from CDC WONDER, which notes one excessive heat death in Des Moines County in 1988.

[57] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 34.

[58] Associated Press. “Heat claims two lives.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-18-1988, p. 2.

[59] Newspaper source: “A man found dead in his car in Topeka died of heat stroke, the Shawnee County coroner said Thursday [14^th]. Artis Terry 51, was found dead in his car about 5 p.m. Wednesday, said Dr. Roman Hiszczynskyj, the county coroner. The car was parked with its windows rolled up near Terry’s residence. It was not know how long he had been there…The heat index, a measure of temperature and humidity, was 112 in Topeka Wednesday. Hiszezynskyj said the temperature in the car was probably between 130 degrees and 140 degrees.” (Hutchinson News, KS. “Latest heat wave kills Topeka man.” 7-15-1988, p. 3.)

[60] Associated Press. “Heat claims two lives.” Garden City Telegram, KS. 7-18-1988, p. 2. Also CDC WONDER. AP notes “Grandstaff was last seen working in his yard Thursday, when the high in Topeka was 96…”

[61] “The Sumner County coroner ruled Monday that the death of an Enid, Okla., man in Wellington last week was heat related.” AP notes that “The high in Wellington Wednesday was 103.

[62] Writes: “Most of the victims were elderly, their bodies found in shuttered homes without air conditioning or fans.” Highlighted in yellow to denote we are not counting separately from CDC WONDER – assume this is one it notes.

[63] Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 7-17-1988, A-6. Also noted by CDC WONDER; E900 heat.

[64] AP. “Huge hay-lift likely; Two die because of heat.” Times Tribune, Corbin, KY, July 9-10, 1988, p. 11. Identified victim as Ralph H. Collins of Lexington, citing Fayette County Deputy Coroner. CDC WONDER also notes excessive heat death of a male, 55-64, in Fayette County in 1988. Assuming one and the same.

[65] Sandusky Register, OH. “Weather….National.” 7-17-1988, A-6. Also, CDC WONDER, without details.

[66] UPI. “First heat wave fatality.” Daily Republican-Register, Mt. Carmel, IL, 7-7-1988, p. 14. An AP article identified the victim as Willa Mattingly and cites Jefferson County Coroner Richard Greathouse. (Associated Press. “Huge hay-lift likely; Two die because of heat.” Times Tribune, Corbin, KY, July 9-10, 1988, p. 11.)

[67] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 37. Another source identifies the victim as Dennis Patrick Berry of Baltimore, notes he was unacclimated to hot construction work – this being his first day on the job (previously having worked as a taxi driver) – and that the temperature climbed to 100° day of death. (The Capital (Cynthia Smith), Annapolis, MD. “Heat blamed for worker’s death.” 8-19-1988, B1.)

[68] Until 1999 Boston was the seat of Suffolk County.

[69] “…local and state agencies were aiming their assistance efforts at the elderly as Massachusetts and the rest of New England sweated through the latest recurrence of sweltering heat that was at least partially blamed for 20 deaths in the Boston area last week.”

[70] Cites “authorities” for reports on the 20 deaths.

[71] Lowell Sun, MA. “Storms expected to break heat.” 6-16-1988, p. 1.

[72] United Press International. “Summer’s heat has claimed 50 lives.” 8-14-1988.

[73] AP, “23 cities set heat records and death toll mushrooms,” Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH, 8-19-1988, p. A2. AP writes “The deaths in Massachusetts occurred between Aug. 4 and Monday [Aug 15], a period when temperatures soared into the 90s. State Medical Examiner Bryan Blackbourne said the clustering of the deaths in the same place and during a short time led him to conclude heat was a contributing factor. Four of the victims lived on the top floor of the eight-story building.” Also, Key West Citizen, FL. “Forecasters promise: killer heat will pass.” 8-17-1988, 2A. Cites Massachusetts medical examiner Brian Blackbourne.

[74] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 39.

[75] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 38. CDC WONDER notes 16 deaths.

[76] UPI (Karen Lee Scrivo). “Cold front brings brief relief.” 8-6-1988. Cites Wayne Co. Medical Examiner’s Office.

[77] We say “about” 44 deaths in that chart plots fatalities by increments of 10 on the left axis and years along the bottom, with a line connecting dots. Takes interpretation, even with enlargement.

[78] July 16: “Missouri Gov. John Ashcroft issued a statewide heat alert, noting that 22 people died in the state in late June during a similar hot spell.”

[79] Courier News, Blytheville, AR. “Farm-State Governors…” 6-24-1988, 5.

[80] UPI (Csongos). “Drought Still Grips Midwest.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 6-26-1988, p. A4. Victim identified as Margaret Grinston. Was noted that Ms. Grinston was the fourth St. Louis heat-related fatality.

[81] Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN. “Thunderstorms bring some relief to Central U.S.” 6-29-1988, p. 12. An AP article wrote that this was the 9^th weather-related death in St. Louis. (Associated Press. “Storms bring welcome relief,” Daily Globe, Ironwood, MI, 6-20-1988, p. 2.)

[82] CDC WONDER actually note three female deaths in this age range, but we show more specific info. on one.

[83] CDC WONDER actually notes four female deaths in age group 85+, but we show more specific info. on three.

[84] CDC WONDER notes two male deaths in 35-42 age group, but we note more specific info. on one of these.

[85] AP (Mike Hirsh). “Heat kills auto worker. Drought’s grip tightens.” Garden City Telegram, KS, 6-23-1988, p. 1. Outdoor temperature noted to be approximately 100°. We highlight in yellow to denote that a later report seeming to cite the St. Louis medical examiner’s office indicated that the worker “was found to have died of heart disease unrelated to the weather, officials said Thursday.” (AP. “Governors meet in Chicago to coordinate aid for struggling farmers.” Frederick Post, MD, 6-24-1988, p. 1.) Thus, we do not include in total for State.

[86] Writes: “Most of the victims were elderly, their bodies found in shuttered homes without air conditioning or fans.”

[87] Kalkstein & Greene, citing Rosenthal, write: “Public health researchers estimated over 300 heat-related deaths in New York City during an average summer between 1964 and 1991 (Kalkstein & Greene, 1997)…” [p. 29] We observe that 1988 was far from being an average summer.

[88] The National Climatic Data Center (Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 48) notes a central NY heatstroke death of a 7-week-old female baby, July 4-11. We make assumption this fatality is one and the same.

[89] AP. “Heat claims two runners.” Kokomo Tribune, IN. 8-14-1988, p. 2. Victim identified as Anthony Mezzina.

[90] AP. “Heat claims two runners.” Kokomo Tribune, IN. 8-14-1988, p. 2. Victim identified as David Reynolds.

[91] AP. “Searing August heat blamed for two…N.C. deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, B1.

[92] AP. “Searing August heat blamed for two…N.C. deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, B1.

[93] AP. “Searing August heat blamed for two…N.C. deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, B1.

[94] AP, Raleigh. “Searing August heat blamed for two eastern N.C. deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, p. B1. Identified the victim as Rebecka A. Brown. Also noted in CDC WONDER.

[95] NCDC. Storm Data, 30/7, July 1988, p. 51. Cause of death: excessive heat. Age range is from CDC WONDER.

[96] AP, Raleigh. “Searing August heat blamed for two eastern N.C. deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, p. B1. Identified the victim as Corene Jones, who had no air conditioning in her public housing project home, where, according to a regional forensic pathologist with the Pitt Memorial Hospital Medical Examiner’s Office, was very hot and that her body temperature approximately eight hours after death was still 110 degrees. CDC WONDER notes the Pitt County excessive heat death of a female 55-64.

[97] Also: AP. “Searing August heat blamed for two…NC deaths.” Daily Times-News, Burlington, NC, 8-20-1988, B1.

[98] Key West Citizen, FL. “Storms give little relief.” 8-16-1988, 2A. CDC WONDER also notes an excessive heat death of a male, 15-19 in Wake County, NC, during 1988.

[99] “Elyria — The parents of 2-year-old Ashley Kasubienski were charged with involuntary manslaughter and child endangering Tuesday after Lorain County Coroner Dr. Robert Thomas ruled the child’s death a homicide. The girl, found dead July 15 in a sweltering attic room had been denied food and water for at least two days, Thomas said….Thomas said an investigation showed that Ashley was confined to a high-temperature upstairs room prior to her death….The child died of dehydration at about 1 a.m., Thomas said. She had been dead about 10 hours before her body was discovered….Police said Ashley was clad in a heavy robe when her body was found. There was no fan in her room, a police spokesman said….Thomas said it was the heat of the upstairs room which was mainly responsible for Ashley’s death. ‘If not for the high temperatures, we might not have had the girl’s death,’ Thomas said. The outdoor temperatures were in the 90s Friday in Elyria….” (Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH. “The death of little Ashley.” 7-20-1988, p. 1.) In March 1989 the parents, Alex and Catherine Kasubienski were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter and child endangering and sentenced to the minimum allowed, 5 to 25 years. (Chronicle Telegram, Elyria, OH. “Kasubienskis get 5-25 years.” 3-23-1989, p. 1.)

[100] Occupational Health and Safety Administration. “Inspection: 103526489 – Collins Railroad Construction Co.” Writes the employee “was not accustomed to the 90 degree temperatures with high humidity.” Notes “The crew had no scheduled breaks. The repair work was strenuous labor.”

[101] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1988, p. 53.

[102] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 50. Also noted in CDC WONDER.

[103] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 52. Also noted in CDC WONDER.

[104] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1988, p. 50. AP identified victims as Henry and Rhoda Archer. (Assoc. Press. “Rain soaks areas in Midwest.” Daily Independent, Kannapolis, NC, 7-1-1988, p. A2.)

[105] CDC WONDER also notes the excessive heat death of a female, aged 75-84 in Washita County, but not a male. According to the AP, Harry Archer died three days later from dehydration. (Associated Press. “Some Rain Falls, But Drought Still Not Over.” Sitka Daily Sentinel, AK, 7-1-1988, p. 2.)

[106] AP. “Midwest Drenched, East Bakes.” Evening Observer, Dunkirk-Fredonia, NY, 7-9-1988, p. 3. Notes infant was left in the hot car four hours, and that in nearby Pittsburg (~30 miles) the Friday high of 99 at the Pittsburgh International AP, broke 1876 record of 97 degrees. It was written in another article that “Temperatures in Indiana [PA] reportedly topped 100 degrees.” (Altoona Mirror, PA. “Infant left in car dies.” 7-8-1988, p.1.) Victim was identified as Jacqueline Lynn Henry, whose mother forgot to drop the infant off with a babysitter and instead drove to work. (Indiana Gazette (Randy Wells), Indiana, PA. “”May charge mother in tot’s death.” 7-9-1988, p. 1.) The mother was later charged (Aug 26) with involuntary manslaughter, reckless endangerment and endangering the welfare of a child. (UPI, Indiana, PA. “Charges filed after infant dies in car.” New Castle News, PA, 8-29-1988, 18.) This fatality is not one of those noted in CDC WONDER.

[107] Sent email to Philadelphia Dept. of Public Health on 8-3-2016 seeking info. on 1988 heat fatalities there. Received email back from Sam P. Gulino, MD, Chief Medical Examiner, Philadelphia Medical Examiner’s Office, noting he did not have the information requested, also noting “I know of no source where such information would be compiled.”

[108] “Officials say the heat played a role in several deaths in central and western Pennsylvania as record-high temperatures and dry weather continued to take their toll on humans, animals and crops.” In order to incorporate a number into our tally we assume that “several” must mean at least three. Highlighted in yellow to note not included in total, assuming that CDC WONDER has captured these fatalities. Note to show these three were by July 9.

[109] Age range is from CDC WONDER.

[110] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 54.

[111] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 55. Age is from CDC WONDER.

[112] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 55.

[113] Highlighted in yellow to denote not included in tally – the Dallas area referred to could possibly include fatalities in neighboring Collin County. Include to note that the deaths were all prior to August 8.

[114] UPI. “Rain Interrupts Heat Wave in Eastern U.S.” Cumberland Sunday Times-News, 7-24-1988, A2. Cites Dallas Co. Med. Exam. on heatstroke as cause of death. Left in car by mother, age 16. Also noted by CDC WONDER.

[115] CDC WONDER notes one excessive heat death of a male, 20-24, in Dallas County in 1988. We assume this is it.

[116] OSHA. “Inspection: 100585538 – Maintain Incorporated.” Notes that the collapse was on Aug 11, that victim’s core temperature was 108°F upon arrival at hospital, and that outdoor temp. reached 96° with a heat index of 107°. Also notes victim worked 97 hours during 2-week pay period of his death. Highlighted in yellow to indicate not counted in total in that we assume this fatality is among the male deaths noted by CDC WONDER.

[117] Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL. “Bicyclist dies in 106-degree heat.” 8-29-2016, p. 6.

[118] Highlighted to denote not included in tally in that this could be one of the ten Dallas area heat-related deaths.

[119] National Climatic Data Center. Storm Data, Vol. 30, No. 8, Aug 1988, p. 61. Highlighted in yellow to denote not included in tally – assuming this death is one of five noted by CDC WONDER, just with more detail.

[120] Cites Kevin Pense, forecaster with the National Weather Service in Jackson, Mississippi.

[121] Cites: Larsen, U. “The effects of monthly temperature fluctuations on mortality in the United States from 1921 to 1985.” International Journal of Biometeorology, vol. 34, 1990, pp. 136-145; and Larsen, U. “Short-term fluctuations in death by cause, temperature, and income in the United States 1930-1985.” Social Biology, 37/3-4, 1990, 172-187.

[122] Cites: World Health Organization/World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme. “Climate change and human health (A.J. McMichael, A. Haines, R. Slooff, and S. Kovats, eds.). 1996. WHO/WMO.

[123] Jendritzky, G. Komplexe umwelteinwirkungen: klima. In: Prakitische Umweltmedizin, 4 Nachlieferung (Beyer A, Eis D, eds., Heidelberg: Springer, 1961; 1-30); Kunst, A.E., C.W.N. Looman, and J.P. Mackenbach. “Outdoor air temperature and mortality in the Netherlands: A time series analysis.” Am J Epidemiol 137:331-341 (1993).

[124] Cites WHO/WMO/UNEP (already referenced), and Kunst (previously referenced).

[125] Gaffen, D. J., & Ross, R. J. “Increased summertime heat stress in the US.” Nature, 396(10), Dec 1998, 529-530.

[126] NOAA. (2009). Heat wave: A major summer killer. Retrieved February 27, 2009, from

http://www.noaawatch.gov/themes/heat.php.

[127] Hoshiko, S., English, P., Smith, D., & Trent, R. (2010). “A simple method for estimating excess mortality due to heat waves, as applied to the 2006 California heat wave.” International Journal of Public Health, 55, 133-137. DOI 10.1007/s00038-009-0060-8

[128] Clarke, J. F. “Some effects of the urban structure on heat mortality.” Environmental Research, V5, 1972, 93-104.

[129] Smargiassi, A., M. Fournier, C. Griot, Y. Baudouin, and T. Kosatsky. “Prediction of the indoor temperatures of an urban area with an in-time regression mapping approach.” Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, Vol. 18, pp. 282-288.

—  27  National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.  FARS 1975-2010 Fatality Analysis.

—  27  NTSB. HAR. Pickup Truck/Church…Bus…Collision…Carrollton, KY, May 14, 1988.

 

Narrative Information

 

NTSB: “Synopsis

 

“About 10:55 p.m. eastern daylight time on May 14, 1988, a pickup truck traveling northbound in the southbound lanes of Interstate 71 struck head-on a church activity bus traveling southbound in the left lane of the highway near Carrollton, Kentucky. As the pickup truck rotated during impact, it struck a passenger car traveling southbound in the right lane near the church bus. The church bus fuel tank was punctured during the collision sequence, and a fire ensued, engulfing the entire bus. The busdriver and 26 bus passengers were fatally injured. Thirty-four bus passengers sustained minor to critical injuries, and six bus passengers were not injured. The pickup truck driver sustained serious injuries, but neither occupant of the passenger car was injured.

 

“The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of the collision between the pickup truck and the church activity bus was the alcohol-impaired condition of the pickup truck driver who, operated his vehicle opposite to the direction of traffic flow on an interstate highway. Contributing to the severity of the accident was the puncture of the bus fuel tank and ensuing fire in the bus, the partial blockage by the rear bench seats of the area leading to the rear emergency door which impeded rapid passenger egress, and the flammability of the materials in the bus seat cushions.

 

“The safety issues discussed in the report include:

 

• effects of alcohol on driver performance,
• effectiveness of driving-under-the-influence program in Kentucky,
• current Federal standards used in school bus manufacture,
• flammability and toxicity of school bus seating materials,
• emergency egress on school buses, and
• fuel system integrity of school buses

 

“Safety recommendations addressing these issues were made to the governors of all 50 State, the State of Kentucky, various private church associations and special activity groups, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and the Federal Highway Administration….

 

“On July 17, 1975, the Safety Board classified Safety Recommendation H-68-24 as “Closed-Acceptable Action.” In the past, efforts have been made to reduce wrong-way driving at entrances and exits near interchanges. However, because the loss of life (about 272 deaths per year) from wrong-way accidents continues to be substantial, it is reasonable to conclude that wrong-way accidents on the main line between interchanges may now be a problem. A nationwide effort on the interstates should be initiated to post “Wrong-Way” and “One-Way” signs and place pavement arrows at each crossover or at periodic intervals (such as 1 mile). Although there are about 43,000 miles of interstate highway, the cost may not be great relative to the benefits of reducing these severe types of accidents. However, the Board recognizes that it may be necessary to establish, through a demonstration program, the feasibility of such a program. Because wrong-way accidents do not occur frequently on a particular interstate route within a State, the Board believes the FHWA should conduct a demonstration project to determine the feasibility of reducing wrong-way accidents on the main lines of interstates by the installation of additional signs and markings at all crossovers and at periodic intervals. Based on a preliminary assessment of the data presented in table 1, North Carolina, Georgia, and Indiana may be candidates for the demonstration projects.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

 

“As a result of its investigation, the National Transportation Safety Board made the following recommendations:

 

to the 50 States and the District of Columbia:

 

“Propose legislation establishing a date by which school buses manufactured before April 1977 will be phased out of use for transportation of passengers. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-1)

 

to 49 States, except Kentucky, and the District of Columbia:

 

“Convene or reconvene a committee or task force to review your State’s driving-under-the-influence (DUI) legislation and its implementation, in light of the problems discussed in the accident report on the pickup truck/church activity bus head-on collision and fire near Carrollton, Kentucky, on May 14, 1988. Particular attention should be paid to implementation of administrative license revocation programs, elimination of plea bargaining to a non-alcohol-related offense, reduction of licensing penalties for enrolling in alcohol education or treatment programs, improved evaluations of convicted DUI offenders, and enhanced public awareness and enforcement programs. Based on this review, take appropriate action to improve your State’s DUI prevention program. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-2)

 

to various church associations and other special activity groups:

 

“Purchase only school bus-type vehicles which meet the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards set for school buses in April 1977. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-3)

 

to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration:

 

“Incorporate in Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 302 the recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology concerning the new material acceptance criteria to reduce the rate of fire spread in all buses. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-4)

 

“Revise Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 217 to require that school bus egress be based on vehicle occupant capacity and be no lower than those currently required for non-school buses. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-5)

 

“Revise Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 301 to provide additional protection for school buses in severe crash situations based on an evaluation of the merits of relocating fuel tanks, providing additional structure to protect fuel system components, and using frangible valves in critical locations. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-6)

 

to the Federal Highway Administration:

 

“Conduct a demonstration project to determine the effectiveness of installing additional signs and markings at all crossovers and periodic intervals to reduce wrong-way accidents on interstates. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-7)

 

to the State of Kentucky:

 

“Enact the recommendations made by the Driving-Under-the-Influence (OUI) Committee formed by the governor to assess the current DUI laws. These recommendations cover administrative license revocation, illegal per se, implied consent and testing, chemical analysis, suspended licenses, and alcohol driver education. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-8)

 

“Amend the current driving-under-the-influence laws to prohibit the reduction or elimination of a licensing penalty if a convicted offender enrolls in an education or treatment program. Participation in these programs should be required in addition to appropriate licensing or other penalties. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-9)

 

“Review all aspects of the plea bargaining prohibitions of the 1984 driving-under-the-influence law to determine if persons charged with alcohol-related offenses are being allowed to plea bargain the charge to a non-alcohol-related offense, and if so, take administrative or legislative action to correct the situation. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-10)

 

“Expand the use by the Kentucky State Police of preliminary breath test devices and the three-part field sobriety test recommended by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, including the horizontal gaze nystagmus test, and urge and assist all other traffic law enforcement agencies in Kentucky to do the same. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-11)

 

“Expand the use of sobriety checkpoints by the Kentucky State Police, and encourage and assist local law enforcement agencies to do the same. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-12)

 

“Renew State efforts to publicize and encourage citizens to participate in the “Report a Problem Intoxicated Driver” program. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-13)

 

“Expand efforts to make the public aware of increased emphasis on deterring impaired driving. (Class II, Priority Action) (H-89-14).”  (NTSB, Pickup Truck/Church Activity Bus Head On Collision and Fire Near Carrollton, Kentucky May 14, 1988, 1989, Synopsis)

 

Sources

 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Partial Data Dump of Crashes Involving 10 or More Fatalities, by Year, Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) 1975-2009 Final and 2010 ARF. Washington, DC: NHTSA, pdf file provided to Wayne Blanchard, 1-26-2012.

 

National Transportation Safety Board. Highway Accident Report. Pickup Truck/Church Activity Bus Head On Collision and Fire, Near Carrollton, Kentucky, May 14, 1988 (NTSB HAR-89/91; NTIS PB89-916201). Washington, DC: NTSB, adopted March 28, 1989. Accessed 9-30-2016 at:

http://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/HAR8901.pdf

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

— 17  AP/Strauss. “17 Die as Helicopters Collide During Army Training Mission.” 3-9-1988.

— 17  Associated Press. “17 Die in Collision of Army Copters.” New York Times, 3-10-1988.

— 17  Baugher, Joseph F.  1985 USAF Serial Numbers. 11-27-2011 revision.

— 17  Gero.  Military Aviation Disasters: Significant Losses Since 1908.  1999, p. 151.

 

Narrative Information

 

AP, March 9: “Fort Campbell, Ky., March 9 — Two Army helicopters collided on a training missing Tuesday night, killing all 17 soldiers aboard, the Army said. After the collision the two helicopters, UH-60 Blackhawks based at Fort Campbell, plunged 250 feet to the ground and burned….

 

“The Blackhawk, one of the newest helicopters used by the Army, Air Force and Marine Corps, has been grounded four times in the last three years. Last summer officials said about 40 people had been killed in crashes of the helicopter since 1978…

 

“Major Schoel [military spokesman] said the helicopters were flying in a ”routine” night mission. ”Obviously, there’s an element of risk in everything we do,” he said. ”We train up to a standard that reduces that risk to an absolute minimum. Yes it can be, but it’s not necessarily, more dangerous to fly at night.” Officials said the weather was good, which in military terms means visibility of better than a mile and a cloud ceiling of at least 500 feet.

 

“The helicopters were flying at 92 miles per hour and about 250 feet above the ground when they collided, Major Schoel said. Another spokesman, William Harralson, said the collision occurred when one helicopter, flying alone, struck one of three helicopters that were flying in formation. ”There were three aircraft in formation, if you want to say ducks in a row, headed east, and another who was flying solo, hit one of those,” Mr. Harralson said. The helicopter flying alone carried four servicemen; the 13 others were aboard the second craft. One of the other helicopters returned to Fort Campbell; the other landed at the crash site to aid in the investigation….

 

“The Army’s fleet of 820 UH-60s was grounded twice in May 1987, once for inspection and once because of a design flaw. The entire fleet also was grounded in April 1985 and March 1986 after fatal crashes. In 1985, the Army identified a defect in the main rotor assembly and ordered it corrected.

 

“The Blackhawk is designed primarily as a utility and assault aircraft and is used in air assault, air cavalry and medical evacuation, said Maj. Phil Soucy, a spokesman for the Army in Washington. The helicopter normally is operated with a crew of three and can carry 11 combat-equipped soldiers.” (Associated Press. “17 Die in Collision of Army Copters.” NYT, 3-10-1988.)

 

AP/Strauss, March 9: “Mar. 9, 1988 6:37 PM ET. Fort Campbell, KY (AP) — Army crews Wednesday retrieved the last eight bodies of 17 soldiers killed when two helicopters on a night training mission collided, ten plunged 250 feet to the ground and caught fire. TH UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters from Fort Campbell spewed wreckage for hundreds of yards and charred the partially wooded, gently rolling site six miles from the choppers’ air field Tuesday night. ‘One aircraft is located in the trees. One aircraft is right on the edge of a clearing,’ said Maj. Randy Schoel, Fort Campbell spokesman.

 

“It was the worst Army aviation disaster since 248 soldiers based at Fort Campbell were killed in 1985 in the crash of a chartered plane in Gander, Newfoundland, Schoel said….

 

“Four bodies were taken from the wreckage of each helicopter Wednesday, Schoel said.

 

“Schoel said the crash occurred on the western Kentucky-Tennessee border during a ‘routine night mission,’ and left no survivors….

 

“The helicopters were flying at 92 mph air speed and about 250 feet from ground when the collided, Schoel said. One of three helicopters flying in formation was hit by a fourth, said William Harralson, deputy public affairs officer at the fort. ‘There were three aircraft in formation, if you want to say ducks in a how, headed east, and another who was flying solo, hit one of those,’ said Harralson….

 

“The solo helicopter carried four servicemen; the 13 others were in the other aircraft….

 

“One helicopter crashed on the Tennessee side of the border, the other in Kentucky….

 

“One of the other Blackhawk helicopters returned to the air field; the other landed at the crash site….” (Associated Press (John Strauss). “17 Die as Helicopters Collide During Army Training Mission.” 3-9-1988.)

 

Baugher: “Sikorsky UH-60A Blackhawk….24462 (101st Avn) crashed near Fort Campbell Mar 8, 1988 after colliding with UH-60A 87-24606.  Total of 17 personnel killed.”  (Baugher, Joseph F.  1985 USAF Serial Numbers.  11-27-2011 revision.)

 

Gero: “The two turbine-engine helicopters [85-24462 & 87-24605] collided in mid-air, then crashed and burned at the Fort Campbell military reservation, and all 17 American servicemen aboard both aircraft were killed. Involved in the accident were the leader of a flight of three rotorcraft (85-24462), which altogether had just picked up some three dozen soldiers and was itself carrying 10 passengers plus a crew of three, and the individual UFI-60 (87-24605), which had been on a training flight with four crewmen aboard.

 

“The group had just taken off and was climbing when the pilots of the two other aircraft observed, in the darkness, the navigation lights of the lone helicopter at their 3 o’clock position, and success­fully initiated evasive action. However, the flight leader was struck by 87-24605, the impact shearing off the aft section of the former’s tail boom and two of the latter’s four main rotor blades. The collision occurred at an above-ground height of approximately 150ft…in visual meteorological conditions, with a ceiling of 8,000ft…and a visibility of 7 miles… In a brief statement, military authorities attributed the accident to ‘pilot error’ to wit, a reasonable mistake in judgment. Considered as contributory were…the limited filed of view of the night-vision goggles being used by both crews, which also hampered their ability to see each other.”  (Gero 1999, pp. 145-146)

Sources

 

Associated Press (John Strauss). “17 Die as Helicopters Collide During Army Training Mission.” 3-9-1988. Accessed 9-30-2016 at: http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1988/17-Die-As-Helicopters-Collide-During-Army-Training-Mission/id-e41aecb18eaf465ae1c28152de3ff551

 

Associated Press. “17 Die in Collision of Army Copters.” New York Times, 3-10-1988. Accessed 9-30-2016 at: http://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/10/us/17-die-in-collision-of-army-copters.html

 

Baugher, Joseph F. 1985 USAF Serial Numbers.  11-27-2011 revision. Accessed 3-14-2012 at:

http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_serials/1985.html

 

Gero, David. Military Aviation Disasters: Significant Losses Since 1908. UK and Newbury Park, CA: Patrick Stephens Limited, an imprint of Hayes Publishing, 1999.

 

 

 

 

–10 Adame. “30 Years Later: 1988 U.S. Army CH-47D Crash Near Chico, Texas…” 2-25-2018.
–10 AP. “Army helicopter crash kills 10…” News-Herald, Del Rio, TX. 2-26-1988, 9A.
–10 Aviation Safety Network. US Army Chinook engine failure, crash, Chico, TX, 25-Feb-1988.

Narrative Information

Aviation Safety Network, Flight Safety Foundation, Database:
“Date: 25-Feb-1988…
“Type: Boeing CH-47D Chinook
“Owner/operator: United States Army 158th AVN
“Registration: 86-01643
“MSN: M3148
“Fatalities: Fatalities: 10 / Occupants: 18
….
“Location: Chico, Texas
“Phase: En route
“Nature: Military
“Departure airport: Ft. Hood, Texas
“Destination airport: Ft. Sill, OK
“Narrative:

“Aircraft suffered catastrophic engine failure due to transmission gearbox #2 failure at 3,500 feet. Resulting explosion forced pilots into an emergency descent which culminated in aircraft hitting ground at 150mph, destroying aircraft and setting fire to surrounding area. 10 soldiers died and 8 survived with varying degrees of injury.”

Newspaper

Feb 26, AP: “Chico, Texas (AP) – An Army helicopter nosedived into a cow pasture and skidded about 75 feet before it broke apart in a sheet of fire, killing 19 men and seriously burning eight others, authorities and witnesses said.

“Two soldiers leaped about 35 feet to the ground from the burning twin-rotor CH047D Chinook before it crashed about 50 miles from Fort Worth on Thursday, said state Department of Public Safety Sgt. Robert Rankin. One of the soldiers died. The other soldier said that a fire had broken out at the back of the helicopter based at Fort Sill, Okla., and that those aboard had tried to move to the front to get away from the flames, Rankin said.

“Residents raced to the scene, pulling casualties away from the raging grass fire sparked by the crash….

“The Chinook CH-47D has a history of problems and the Army grounded its entire fleet of 63 of the big transport helicopters for 1½ months in 1985 after an accident in Honduras injured eight soldiers.

“Witnesses said the helicopter was tilted forward at a 45-degree angle, puffing smoke and descending rapidly when it crashed about 3:29 p.m., slicing through a power line. ‘All of a sudden a little thin streak of smoke came out of it and there was a small explosion on the right side underneath it,’ said Joe Haworth, who was working at a nearby plant. ‘The it put out a little more smoke and it flew straight for a ways, then parts went coming out of it.’….

“Jack Southern, 54 used a small fire extinguisher from his pickup truck to douse burning bodies. ‘The only thing I could do was put the fires out on the bodies. I went from body to body trying to put them out,’ he said.

“The copter, carrying 13 passengers and five crew members, was returning to Fort Sill from Fort Hood in central Texas, Fort Sill spokesman Rick Brink said. He said the passengers probably were from Fort Hood, but officials could identify only two early today.

“Of the 10 dead, six died at the scene, one died in Parkland Hospital in Dallas, one died in Bridgeport Hospital and another died early today at Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio. Another soldier was found dead at the crash site after dark Thursday….

“The CH-47D, which has a troop capacity of 44, is a modernized version of earlier models of the Chinook, which was used in Vietnam.

“In the Honduras accident, a transmission bearing failed on a CH-47D taxiing to a refueling depot. The failure caused one of the copter’s main rotors to stop turning; the other rotor began hitting it and the helicopter tore itself apart. The Chinook’s main rotors mesh as they turn, and therefore must be synchronized.” (Associated Press. “Army helicopter crash kills 10 and seriously burns eight.” News-Herald, Del Rio, TX. 2-26-1988, 9A.)

Sources

Adame, Mario G. “30 Years Later: 1988 U.S. Army CH-47D Crash Near Chico, Texas Detailed With Original Video and Newspaper Clippings.” 2-25-2018. Accessed 7-24-2023 at: https://marioadame.com/2018/02/25/30-years-later-1988-u-s-army-ch-47d-crash-near-chico-texas-detailed-with-original-video-and-newspaper-clippings/

Associated Press. “Army helicopter crash kills 10 and seriously burns eight.” News-Herald, Del Rio, TX. 2-26-1988, 9A. Accessed 7-24-2023 at:
https://newspaperarchive.com/del-rio-news-herald-feb-26-1988-p-8/

Aviation Safety Network, Flight Safety Foundation, Database. US Army Chinook engine failure, crash, Chico, TX, 25-Feb-1988. Accessed 7-24-2023 at:
https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/56477

–12 NTSB. AAR. AVAIR Inc., Flight 3378 Fairchild Metro III… Cary, North Carolina, Feb 19, 1988.
–12 NTSB. Safety Recommendation A-88-153 through -155. To FAA Administrator, 12-28-1988.
–12 Planecrashinfo.com. “1988. Accident Details. AV Air/American Eagle, Cary, NC, Feb 19.”

Narrative Information

NTSB AAR Executive Summary: “On February 19, 1988, an AVAir Inc. Fairchild Metro III, N622AV, operating as Air Virginia (AVAir) flight 3378, crashed in Cary, North Carolina, shortly after it departed runway 23R at Raleigh Durham International Airport (RDU), Morrisville, North Carolina, with 2 flightcrew members and 10 passengers on board. The airplane struck water within 100 feet of the shoreline of a reservoir, about 5,100 feet west of the midpoint of runway 23R. The airplane was destroyed and all 12 persons on board were killed.”

“The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the failure of the flightcrew to maintain a proper flightpath because of the first officer’s inappropriate instrument scan, the captain’s inadequate monitoring of the flight, and the flightcrew’s response to a perceived fault in the airplane’s stall avoidance system. Contributing to the accident was the lack of company response to documented indications of difficulties in the first officer’s piloting and inadequate Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) surveillance of AVAir (Two board members dissented from the probable cause.)

“The safety issues examined in this investigation include the stall avoidance system of the Fairchild Metro, FAA oversight of AVAir, and the company’s management of its operations.

“As a result of this investigation, the Safety Board issued two recommendations to the FAA regarding the stall avoidance system (SAS) of the Fairchild Metro. One urges the FAA to conduct flight tests in the Metro III to determine the benefits that the SAS stick pusher provides to crewmembers in the stall regime and, if benefits are not demonstrated, to permanently disengage the stick pusher. The other calls for the FAA to review and modify, if necessary, the crew response to an SAS fault in the approved airplane flight manual of the Metro, to reflect the cautionary, nonemergency nature of the fault. The Safety Board also recommended that the FAA provide principal operations inspectors of operators under 14 CFR Parts 135 and 121 with indications of financial distress that suggest when increased surveillance of those operators is warranted.” (NTSB AAR, 1988, p. v.)

NTSB History of the Flight: “At 2125 [9:25] eastern standard time on February 19, 1988, an AVAir Inc., Fairchild Metro III, N622AV, operating as Air Virginia (AVAir) flight 3378, departed runway 23R at Raleigh-Durham International Airport (RDU), Morrisville, North Carolina, with 2 flightcrew members and 10 passengers on board. AVAir 3378, en route from RDU to Richmond, Virginia (RIC), was a regularly scheduled flight conducted under 14 Code of Federal Regulations (DFR) Part 135….

“At 2124:54 the RDU local controller cleared AVAir 3378 to taxi into position and to hold, following the departure of an American Airlines MD-30. The captain of flight 3378, who was performing all communications with air traffic control, acknowledged. According to AVAir’s former manager of training, company standard operating procedure called for the nonflying pilot to perform all communications with air traffic control. At 2125:20, the local controller directed AVAir 3378 to continue to hold but to amend its original clearance from maintaining a runway heading of 230° after departure to turning right to a heading of 290°. The captain acknowledged. At 2125:49 AVAir 3378 was cleared for an immediate takeoff. At 2126:33, the flight was told to ‘report established on the 290° heading and make that turn as soon as feasible, jet traffic to depart behind you.’ The captain responded ‘three seventy eight.’ This was the last transmission from the flight…” (NTSB AAR, 1988, p. 1.)

NTSB Analysis: “….AVAir 3378 departed RDU’s runway 23R and began its turn about 10 seconds after liftoff at an approximate height of 200 feet agl. Analysis of radar data indicates that the airplane continued to climb at an appropriate climb speed but at an excessive rate of turn and then began to descend. The data suggest the absence of abrupt maneuvers. Within 5 seconds of the 2126:39 transmission from the flight, ‘Three seventy eight,’ the airplane entered a 40° to 45° angle of bank and maintained that for at least 10 seconds. A standard rate turn would have required an approximate 22° bank angle. After 10 seconds, a roll out was initiated; however, at that time, the airplane was in a high rate of descent. The airplane was aloft for less than 1 minute….

“The ability to determine the potential contribution of any factor was limited by the absence of both a cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and a flight data recorder (FDR) on AVAir 3378. However, since the accident, the FAA has mandated the installation of flight recorders in such aircraft. In fact, shortly after the accident, AMR Corporation announced that it was placing CVRs and FDRs in the airplanes of the affiliated carriers that it owned in advance of the implementation of the FAA’s rule. The Safety Board is pleased with the actions of AMR and encourages all regional carriers to do the same….” (NTSB AAR, 1988, p. 25.)

NTSB on AVAir Management: “The Safety Board believes that AVAir management created extraordinary conditions for the company, from early 1987 to the time of the accident, which limited its ability to adequately oversee its operations. During that time, AVAir moved its operations base several hundred miles, experienced considerable turnover in the management of its pilot operations as well s in its pilot ranks, acvquired and then phased out a new and considerably more complex aircraft type, dramatically increased its number of pilots, intensively trained pilots, furloughed pilots, significantly expanded its route structure, significantly reduced its route structure, sustained a major accident, and finally, filed for bankruptcy. These factors suggest that AVAir management significantly misjudged critical aspects of financial and operational planning. These misjudgments, the Safety Board believes, extended to oversight of the first officer.

“AVAir management had been informed by its training personnel and line captains that the first officer’s performance was marginal and that her potential advancement in the company was questionable. There is no evidence that the company provided her with additional training, or that it monitored her performance more carefully or more often. Rather, the evidence suggests that following some initial discussion about her difficulties in different training, the only action was the company took with regard to her performance after she had qualified to fly as first officer was to file the captain’s progress and evaluation report dated September 15, 1987, that had been completed by a captain with whom the first officer had flown.

“The Safety Board believes that AVAir’s effort to qualify the first officer during her training difficulties reflect positively on the company’s efforts to provide its employees every opportunity to succeed. Such efforts can often result in well motivated and loyal employees which may have been the case at AVAir. However, AVAir also had both a moral and legal obligation to provide its passengers with the highest degree of safety possible. The Safety Board believes that when it received the captain’s progress and evaluation report on the first officer’s performance, AVAir’s management should have responded in some positive manner. Its failure to respond can be accounted for, in part, by the turmoil AVAir was experiencing at that time. However, given the first officer’s training history, a prudent course of action would have been for the company to determine quickly the nature of the performance difficulties and, at a minimum, provide her with remedial training and additional flight checking, as needed. This was not done. Therefore, the Safety Board concludes that the company’s failure to respond adequately to the first officer’s piloting difficulties contributed to the accident….” (NTSB AAR, 1988, pp. 30-31.)

NTSB Dissenting Member Statement: “John K. Lauber, Member, filed the following concurring and dissenting statement:

“Because of the lack of cockpit voice and flight data recorder data, it is impossible to determine with any degree of confidence what happened to AVAir 3378. Based on analysis of recorded radar data, we can state with a reasonably high degree of confidence that the aircraft entered a steeply banked (45°) right turn at a low altitude (approximately 200 feet above the ground) about 10 seconds after liftoff. We also know that the aircraft started to descend shortly after the turn was initiated. We also can state with a fair degree of confidence that some time after takeoff, the crew disabled the stall avoidance system, which has an established history of uncommanded actuations. We know that the first officer had limited recent instrument flight experience and had not flown for nearly a month due to being furloughed; she had flown only in VFR conditions in the 2 days prior to the accident. We know the captain was not feeling well the night of the accident. We know from training records that both pilots had experienced performance difficulties at various stages of their careers at AVAir and, from other records, that AVAir was experiencing serious destabilizing effects due to financial distress and that the FAA’s surveillance of AVAir was abysmal.

“What we cannot state with any degree of confidence is how these factors, and perhaps others, conspired to result in this accident. We cannot state conclusively that an uncommanded stick pusher actuation did or did not occur. We can speculate, but not conclude, that the captain’s monitoring was inadequate, that one or both pilots experienced vertigo, or that the first officer’s instrument scan was deficient. We simply do not have enough evidence to elevate these factors, or others, from possible causes to probable causes.

“Accordingly, I believe the Probable Cause should read:

The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the failure of the flightcrew to maintain a proper flightpath in response to an actual or perceived fault in the airplane’s stall avoidance system. Contributing to the accident were ineffective management and supervision of flightcrew training and flight operations, and ineffective FAA surveillance of AVAir.

“Joseph T. Hall, Member, filed the following concurring and dissenting statement:

“….I am in concurrence with Member Lauber’s conclusion…[on] the probable cause of this accident….” (NTSB AAR, 1988, p. 34.)

Sources

National Transportation Safety Board. Aircraft Accident Report. AVAIR Inc., Flight 3378 Fairchild Metro III, SA227 AC, N622AV, Cary, North Carolina, February 19, 1988. Washington, DC: NTSB, 12-13-1988, 73 pages. Accessed 10-1-2016 at: http://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR8810.pdf

National Transportation Safety Board. Safety Recommendation A-88-153 through -155. Letter Safety Recommendation for Federal Aviation Administration Administrator, 12-28-1988, 6 pages. Accessed 10-1-2016 at: http://www.ntsb.gov/safety/safety-recs/recletters/A88_153_155.pdf

Planecrashinfo.com. “1988. Accident Details. AV Air/American Eagle, Cary, NC, Feb 19, 1988.” Accessed at: http://www.planecrashinfo.com/1988/1988-12.htm